The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

Extent of Territory,

its effect upon the sea power of a country, 42-44.

Falkland Islands,

dispute concerning, 335.

Farragut, American Admiral,

at Mobile, 164, 287, 361;

at Port Hudson, 361;

at New Orleans, 354, 356;

practice of, as to his position in order of battle, 354-356.

Fleuri, Cardinal,

minister of Louis XV., 241;

peace policy, 241, 243, 253;

commercial expansion of France under, 242, 248;

accord with Walpole, 241, 244, 252;

policy, continental rather than maritime, 243, 244, 251, 253;

supports claimant to Polish throne, 247;

arranges Bourbon Family Compact with Spain, 244, 248;

acquires Bar and Lorraine for France, 249;

allows the navy to decay, 244, 249, 252, 253;

death, 253.

France.

See under Colonies, Commerce, Commerce-Destroying, Geographical Position, Government, Inhabitants, character and number of Naval Policy, Naval Tactics, Sea-Power, Strategy.

Frederick, King of Prussia,

seizes Silesia, 262;

Silesia ceded to, 278;

opens Seven Years' War, 292;

desperate struggle of, 295, 305;

losses in the war, 324;

results of the war to, 324;

partition of Poland, 336.

Gardiner's Bay, Long Island,

useful as a base of operations to an enemy of the United States, 212,

station of English fleet, 386.

Geographical Position,

its effect upon the sea power of countries, 29-35.

Gibraltar,

strategic question, 12;

taken by Rooke, 210;

strategic value, 212;

value to England, 29, 32, 220, 298, 328, 414;

offers to restore to Spain, 236, 298;

attacks on, 212, 245, 411;

siege of, 403-412.

Government,

character and policy of, effect upon the sea power of countries, 58-88;

English, 59-67;

Dutch, 67-69;

French, 69-82;

United States, 83-88.

Graves, British Admiral,

commanding in New York, sails to relieve Cornwallis, 389;

out-manœuvred by De Grasse, 391;

criticisms on, 390, 391.

Graves, British Captain, afterward admiral,

urges Rodney to attack French squadron anchored in Newport, 396;

second to Nelson at Copenhagen, 396 (note);

blockading on French coast, 526.

Great Britain. See England.

Hannibal. See Second Punic War, 13-21.

Havana,

strategic value of, 315, 517, 519;

taken by the English, 315;

restored at Peace of Paris, 321, 322.

Hawke, Sir Edward, afterward Lord, British Admiral,

distinguishes himself at the battle of Toulon, 266;

captures a French squadron, 271-273;

seizes French shipping in the Atlantic, 285;

relieves Byng in the Mediterranean, 290;

blockade of Brest, 300, 527;

brilliant action in Quiberon Bay, 300-304;

maxim as to strength of English fleet, 523.

Henry IV., of France,

policy of, 59, 69, 92, 93.

Herbert, British Admiral,

commands allied English and Dutch fleets at battle of Beachy Head, 182.

Holland. See under Colonies, Commerce, Commerce-Destroying,

Geographical Position, Government, Inhabitants, character and number

of, Naval Policy, Naval Tactics (Ruyter's), Sea Power, Strategy.

Hood, Sir Samuel, afterward Lord, British Admiral,

trait of subordination in, 356 (note);

action with De Grasse off Martinique, 383;

sent by Rodney to America with fourteen ships, 389, 390;

second in command in action off Chesapeake, 391;

temporary chief command in West Indies, 469;

brilliant action at St. Christopher's Island, 470-476;

junction with Rodney, 479;

partial action of April 9, 1782, 481-483;

at battle of the Saints, 486-490, 491-493;

De Grasse's flag-ship strikes to his, 489;

opinion as to Rodney's failure to pursue his advantage, 496;

captures four French ships, 498;

later career and death, 504.

Hoste, Paul,

work on naval tactics, 77, 147, 182, 184.

Howe, Lord, British Admiral,

naval policy of, 9;

at Philadelphia, 360;

at New York, 360;

at Newport, 361;

energy and skill of, 363, 364;

commands Channel fleet, 408;

relieves Gibraltar, 412;

a whig in politics, 500;

opinion as to blockades, 526.

Howe, Sir William, British General,

commander-in-chief in America, 343;

expedition to the Chesapeake, 343, 468, 529, 530;

indolence of, 364.

Hughes, Sir Edward, British Admiral,

arrives in India, 349;

takes Negapatam and Trincomalee, 349;

first meeting with Suffren, 427;

task in India, 428;

first battle with Suffren's squadron, 430-434;

second battle with Suffren, 437-441;

contemporary criticisms on, 442;

third battle with Suffren, 446-448;

tactics of, 431, 449, 453, 456, 462:

slowness of, loses Trincomalee, 450, 451;

fourth battle with Suffren, 453-455;

praise bestowed by, upon his captains, 456;

goes to Bombay from Coromandel coast, 458;

returns to Madras, 461;

supports English siege of Cuddalore, 462;

fifth battle with Suffren, 463;

abandons the field, 463;

death, 467.

Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore, 419;

war upon the English, 420;

denied the aid of the French squadron, 421;

Suffren communicates with, 443;

visited by Suffren, 450;

negotiations of Suffren with, 459, 460;

death of, 461.

Inhabitants, character of,

effect upon the sea power of a country, 50-58.

Inhabitants, number of,

effect upon the sea power of a country, reserve strength, 44-49.

Italy,

geographical position of, 32;

physical conformation of, 39, 40;

necessity for a navy, 40;

Sicilian revolt against Spain, 1674, 159;

Spanish possessions in, 1700, 201;

Sardinia taken by allied fleets, 215;

disposition of Spanish provinces in, at peace of 1713, 219;

Sicily transferred to Austria, and Sardinia to House of Savoy, 1719, 239;

Spanish expedition into, 248;

foundation of Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 248;

Spanish operations against Austria, 1741, 263, 264;

King of Naples forced to withdraw troops from Spanish army by English fleet, 263;

disposition of provinces of, at peace of 1748, 278;

transfer of Corsica to France by Genoa, 292, 334;

acquisition of Malta by England, 327.

Jamaica,

taken by English, under Cromwell, 60;

wish of Spain to recover, 345, 510, 512;

strategic value of, 394, 517, 518;

combined expedition against, 479;

frustrated by Rodney's victory over De Grasse, 496;

Rodney repairs to, after his victory, 501, 517.

James II.,

a seaman by profession, 61, 115;

commands at battle of Lowestoft, as Duke of York, 109;

commands at the battle of Solebay, 147;

deprived of the command, 151;

succeeds to the throne, 175;

interest in the navy, 175, 177, 178;

flight from England, 178;

lands in Ireland, 179;

defeated at the Boyne, 186;

at Cape La Hougue, 188;

death, 205.

Jenkins,

captain of a merchant brig, the story of his ears, 250.

Jervis, Sir John, afterward Earl St. Vincent, British Admiral,

naval policy of, 9;

tactics at Cape St. Vincent, 11, 147, 167, 476 (note);

testimony at Keppel's court-martial, 352.

Johnstone, British Commodore,

sails for Cape of Good Hope, 421;

commissioner to American Congress, 421 (note);

attacked by Suffren at the Cape Verde Islands, 421-425;

anticipated by Suffren at the Cape, 427;

returns unsuccessful to England, 427.

Kempenfeldt, British Admiral,

cuts off part of De Guichen's convoy, 408, 414, 417, 475.

Keppel, Lord, British Admiral,

appointed to command Channel fleet, 341;

battle of Ushant, 350-352;

head of admiralty and disapproves treaty of peace, 499;

a whig in politics, 500.

King, British Commodore,

stubborn defence of the "Exeter," 449;

visits Suffren at the Cape of Good Hope, 465.

La Bourdonnais,

governor of the Isle of France, 243, 273;

his active administration, 273;

prepares to attack English commerce in the East Indies, 273;

takes and ransoms Madras, quarrels with Dupleix, squadron wrecked, returns to France, and dies, 276.

L'Étenduère, French commodore,

brilliant defence of, 272.

Lafayette, Marquis de,

arrival in America, 345;

operations in Virginia, 385;

expressions of Washington to, as to necessity of naval help, 397, 400;

associations of his name to Americans, 501.

La Galissonière, French Admiral,

commands the fleet in the expedition to Minorca, 285;

defeats Byng's attempt to relieve Port Mahon, 286-288.

Lally, French governor of India,

reaches India, 307;

quarrels with Commodore D'Aché, 307;

takes Fort St. David, 308;

besieges Madras, but fails, 310;

fall of French power under, 310.

Langara, Spanish Admiral,

defeated and captured by Rodney, 403, 404, 499;

action at Toulon in 1793, 156.

Leibnitz,

proposes to Louis XIV. the occupation of Egypt, 106, 107, 141, 142.

Louis XIV.,

growth of French navy under, 72;

enmity to Holland, 73;

policy of, 73, 103-105, 140, 143, 205;

naval policy of, 72, 74, 107, 133, 141-143, 155, 159, 166, 174, 178-181, 194-196;

assumes personal government, 90;

initiates general wars, 91;

condition of France at accession of, 93;

commercial policy of, 54, 105, 167, 169, 170, 176;

aggressions of, 139, 173;

declares war against Holland, 144;

campaign in Holland, 149-151;

evacuates Holland, 158;

Sicilian episode, 159-166;

peace with Holland, 168;

declares war against Germany, 177;

against Holland, 178;

supports invasion of Ireland, 179-186;

plans invasion of England, 188-191;

concessions by, at peace of Ryswick, 197;

effect of policy of, on sea-power, 198-200;

accepts bequest of Spanish throne to his grandson, 203;

reduced to extremities in War of Spanish Succession, 215, 216;

humiliating concessions at peace of Utrecht, 219-221;

exhaustion of France under, 227;

privateering under, 133, 134, 195, 230;

death of, 232.

Louis XV.,

ascends throne, 232;

condition of French commerce under, 74, 242-244, 279, 280, 311, 318;

condition of French navy, 74-77, 244, 252-254, 259, 276, 279, 280, 288, 291, 311;

restoration of the navy, 76, 331-333;

defensive alliance with Spain, 248, 263-268;

offensive alliance with Spain, 313, 333;

death, 336.

Louis XVI.,

begins to reign, 336;

naval policy of, 78-80, 337-340, 402, 403, 452;

general policy of, 336, 337, 345, 359, 382, 419, 509-512, 535-540;

treaty with the United States, 346;

breach with England, 350.

Louisburg, Cape Breton Island,

strategic importance of, 28, 294, 328;

retained by France at Peace of Utrecht, 219;

taken by New England colonists, 269;

restored to France at peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 277;

taken by Boscawen, 294.

Madras,

capital of a British presidency in India, 257;

taken by French, 276;

exchanged for Louisburg at peace of 1748, 277;

besieged by French in 1759, 310;

danger from Hyder Ali in 1780, 420;

principal British naval station during the struggle, 1781-1783, 429, 437, 444, 450, 451;

danger of roadstead, in northeast monsoon. 458, 518, 519.

Mahrattas, the,

position in India of, and war with English, 419, 420;

peace with the English, 459, 461.

Maria Theresa,

ascends Austrian throne, 262;

war with Prussia, France, and Spain, 262, 263;

war with Prussia, in alliance with France and Russia, 292.

Martinique, French West India Island,

base for commerce-destroying, 31, 135, 314;

taken by the English, 135, 314;

effects of this conquest, 318;

restored to France at peace of Paris, 321;

principal base of French navy in West Indies. 348, 366, 469, 479;

actions near, 378, 383;

strategic position of, 480, 517, 518, 523.

Matthews, British Admiral,

commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and minister to Sardinia, 263;

action with combined French and Spanish fleets, 265-267;

court-martialled and cashiered, 268.

Mazarin, Cardinal,

policy of, 70, 93;

death, 90.

Mediterranean Sea,

control of, influence on Second Punic war, 14-21;

strategic points in, 13, 20, 22, 23, 32, 62, 63, 82, 141, 142, 202, 203, 215, 220, 285, 298, 327, 328, 335, 393, 515;

advantage of strategic study of, 33;

analogy to Caribbean Sea, 33;

increase of English power in, 206, 210, 212, 215, 219, 220, 229, 235, 239, 263, 322, 327, 328;

Austria established in, 239;

Sardinia given to House of Savoy, 239;

foundation of Bourbon Kingdom of Two Sicilies, 248,

strengthens France in, 249;

English navy in, 193, 206, 208, 210-216, 263-268, 286-291, 296, 298, 412, 515, 532, 533;

France acquires Corsica, 334, 335;

England loses Minorca in American Revolution, 409, 540.

Monk, British General and Admiral,

saying about Dutch trade, 107;

commands English fleet in the Four Days' Battle, 117-126;

tactics of, 121, 124;

merits of, 126;

opposition to laying up the heavy ships, 131;

death, 127.

Morogues, Bigot de,

work on Naval Tactics, 10, 77, 288.

Napoleon I.,

recommends study of military history, 2;

Egyptian expedition, 10, 107;

Trafalgar campaign, 11, 12, 23, 24 (note), 119, 532, 533;

favorite objective, 47;

naval policy, 81, 506;

influence of French navy on American privateering in 1812, 137.

Naval Policy,

value of reserve force, 48;

colonial, 56,

in peace, 82;

in war, 82;

soldiers commanding ships, 127;

commerce-destroying and privateering (see Commerce-destroying) Bourbon Family compact, 248, 313;

significance of the wars from 1739 to 1783, 254;

Dutch, 67-69, 95-99, 108, 109, 126, 174, 201-204, 217, 218, 222, 406;

English, 59-67, 78, 100, 101, 105, 107, 131, 140, 143, 174, 175, 192-196, 201-204, 206, 224, 225, 229, 238-241, 244, 245, 264, 293, 326-328, 406, 417, 442, 451, 452, 505, 540;

French, 29, 54, 69-81, 93, 104, 105-107, 166, 167-170, 177, 187, 197, 199, 212, 226, 238, 242-244, 252, 282, 287-290, 291, 309, 311, 322, 331-334, 337, 340, 359, 382, 408 (and note), 451, 452, 459, 460, 506, 510, 511;

maritime inscription, 45;

Leibnitz's proposition to Louis XIV., 141, 142;

Italian, 39, 40;

Spanish, 41, 51, 94, 156, 246, 312, 333, 348, 401, 407, 510, 517 (note), 535, 536;

United States, 26, 33, 34, 38, 39, 42, 49, 83-88, 325, 326, 539, 540 (note).

Naval Tactics,

unsettled condition of modern, 2;

qualities of galleys, steamers, and sailing-ships, 3-5;

windward and leeward positions, 6,

change of, from age to age, 9, 10, 22, 130, 506;

fireships, 109, 110, 113, 114;

torpedo-cruisers, 111;

group formation, 112;

close-hauled line-of-battle, 115;

breaking the line, 124, 147, 265, 268, 286, 380, 381, 488, 491;

refusing the van, 148, 152, 157, 183, 190, 266, 432, 434;

concentration by defiling, 308, 387, 470, 492;

concentration by doubling, 125, 147, 183, 272, 378, 379, 432, 433, 438-441;

general chase with mêlée, 3, 4, 184, 237, 271, 299, 302, 303, 367-369, 404, 481, 482, 486;

French, in eighteenth century, 79, 80, 114, 163, 164, 287-290, 338, 340, 351, 372, 383, 425, 426, 431, 474 (and note), 476, 478, 482, 483, 486-488, 494, 538;

English, in eighteenth century, 127-129, 163, 211, 237, 265, 268, 271, 286, 287, 299, 303, 307, 350, 352, 369, 377-381, 386, 389, 391, 404, 412, 442, 447, 449, 453-455, 462, 463, 470-473, 476 (and note), 486-490;

Monk's, 121;

Ruyter's, 145, 147, 148, 152, 154, 157, 161;

Duquesne's, 161-163, 165;

Herbert's, 182;

Tourville's, 182, 184, 185, 187, 189;

Rooke's, 211;

Byng's, 286;

Hawke's, 271, 272, 303;

Keppel's and D'Orvilliers, 351;

Barrington's, 366;

Byron's, 367-369;

D'Estaing's, 369, 370;

Rodney's, 377-379, 404, 488, 491;

De Grasse's, 383, 389, 471-474, 481-483, 485-489;

Arbuthnot and Destouches's, 386;

Graves's, 389, 391;

Suffren's, 425, 426, 432, 433, 439, 455, 465;

Hood's, 472, 473;

Clerk's work on, 77, 163, 211;

Hoste's work on, 77;

Morogues' work on, 77;

position of commander-in-chief in battle, 353-358;

effect on, of changes in naval material, 2-5, 9, 10, 22, 109, 116, 384 (note), 386 (note), 493-495.

Navies, condition of:

British, under Cromwell, 62;

under Charles II., 61, 101;

character of vessels, 1660, 101;

qualities of officers, 1660, 126-129;

decline of, under Charles II., 174;

improvement of, by James II., 175;

numbers in 1691, 187;

deterioration under William III., 192;

improvement under Anne, 209, 220, 224, 225, 229;

numbers and condition of, in 1727, 1734, and 1744, 259, 260;

inefficiency of officers, 1744, 265-269;

numbers of, 1756-1763, 291;

numbers of, in 1778, 337, 341;

professional skill of officers in American Revolution, 379 (and note), 401, 412, 449, 456, 497;

administration of, 417, 452, 523, 527.

Dutch, prior to 1660, 68, 98, 99;

character of ships, 102;

professional qualities of officers, 109, 126, 127, 129, 157;

Duquesne's estimate of Dutch officers, 129;

decline of, after 1675, 160, 174;

decline of, during War of Spanish Succession, 221, 222;

practical disappearance of, after 1713, 222.

French, 53;

numbers in 1661, 70;

numbers in 1666, 72;

numbers, 1683-1690, 72, 178, 179, 180;

administration of, 1660-1695, 72;

condition of, at end of Louis XIV.'s reign, 74, 191;

character of vessels in 1660, 101,

professional qualities of officers in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 129, 161, 170-172, 185;

decay in number and condition, 1713-1760, 74-76, 209, 216, 244, 252, 259, 260, 279, 280, 288, 291, 311, 312;

revival of, 1760, 76-78, 331;

numbers of, in 1761 and 1770, 331;

discipline during war of 1778, 332, 333;

numbers in 1778, 45, 337;

superior to British in size and batteries of ships, 338, 493, 494;

professional skill of officers, 365, 412, 435, 436, 447, 457, 484, 497, 527, 536 (note);

administration of, 402 (and note), 403, 452, 536, 537;

numbers of, in 1791, 338;

numbers of, in 1814, 81.

Spanish, condition of, anterior to 1660, 41, 50, 94, 95;

in 1675, 160, 165;

restoration by Alberoni, 234;

destruction of ships at Cape Passaro and of dock-yards, 237, 238;

numbers of, 1747, 259;

numbers of, 1756, 291;

numbers of, in 1761, 331;

numbers of, in 1779, 337;

superior to British in size and batteries of ships, 338;

administration of, 402 (and note), 403, 536;

character of the personnel, 527.

Nelson, Horatio, afterward Lord, British Admiral,

tactics at the battle of the Nile, 10;

Trafalgar campaign, 11, 23 (note), 527, 532, 533;

tactics at Trafalgar, 12, 354, 459;

enforces Navigation Act, 60, 251;

orders at Trafalgar, 112, 434;

at battle of Cape St. Vincent, 157, 355, 368;

celebrated sayings of, 185, 362, 435, 525, 527, 532;

attachment of subordinates to, 267;

position assumed by him in battle, 353-358.

Nile, Battle of the,

tactical principles, 10;

strategic effect, 11;

French rear at, 80;

Nelson at, 358.

Opdam, Dutch Admiral,

commands at battle of Lowestoft and is killed, 108, 109.

Orleans, Philippe d',

Regent of France during minority of Louis XV., 74, 232;

insecurity of position, 232;

concessions to England, 233;

policy of, 235;

alliance with England against Spain, 235-238;

death, 241.

Peace:

Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748, 277.

Breda, 1667, 132.

Nimeguen, 1678, 168.

Nystadt, 1721, 240.

Paris, 1763, 321.

Ryswick, 1697, 197.

Utrecht, 1713, 219.

Versailles, 1783, 541.

Philip, Duke of Anjou, afterward Philip V. of Spain,

Spanish throne bequeathed to, 202;

war declared against, by England, Holland, and Germany, 205;

loses Gibraltar, 210;

besieges Gibraltar, 212;

loses Barcelona and Catalonia, 213;

driven from Madrid, 214;

recovers all Spain, except Catalonia, 214;

acknowledged King of Spain by Treaty of Utrecht, 219;

deprived of Netherlands and Italian dependencies, 219;

enmity to the regent Orleans, 232;

seizes Sardinia, 235;

attacks Sicily, 236;

brought to terms by France and the Sea Powers, 239;

makes alliance with the Emperor Charles VI., 244;

attacks Gibraltar, 245.

Physical Conformation,

its effect upon the sea power of countries, 35-42.

Pitt, William,

dislike of George II. to, 270;

becomes prime minister, 293;

policy of, 295, 296;

prosperity of commerce under, 297;

offers to restore Gibraltar to Spain, 298;

respect for Portuguese neutrality, 299, 300;

declines mediation of Spain, 304;

waning of his influence, 305;

purposes war against Spain, 313;

resigns his office, 313;

his plans adopted by successors, 314, 317;

opposes the peace of Paris, 322;

effect of his policy on the history of England, 326.

Pocock, British Admiral,

commands British fleet in India and fights three battles with French fleet, 307-310;

commands fleet in combined expedition against Havana, 314, 315.

Port Mahon and Minorca,

lost to Spain frequently through maritime weakness, 42, 215, 541;

ceded to England in 1713, 62, 219;

strategic importance of, 62, 220, 393, 515;

French expedition against, 285;

Byng defeated in his attempt to relieve, 286-288;

surrender of, to France, 291;

Pitt's offer to exchange Gibraltar for, 298;

restored to England at peace of 1763, 322;

taken from England in 1782, 407, 409;

ceded to Spain in 1783, 540;

again taken by England, 541.

Portugal,

decay in sea power and wealth, 52;

cedes Bombay and Tangiers to England, 104;

dependence on England, 105, 208, 315, 320, 321;

Methuen treaty, 206;

alliance with England and Holland, 1704, 208;

advantage of, to England, 208, 213-215, 220, 228;

French and Spaniards invade, 315, 316, 321;

England repels the invasion, 316;

benevolent neutrality of colonial ports to England, 520, 521.

Ramatuelle,

work on Naval Tactics, 287, 290, 371-374.

Rhode Island,

occupied by the English in the American Revolution, 346;

attack upon by French and Americans, 361-364;

English evacuate, 376, 530;

French occupy, 382, 394;

French position in, 394;

strategic value of, 519, 529, 530 (note).

Richelieu, Cardinal,

policy of, 59, 70, 92, 93;

alliance with Spain, 94.

Rochambeau, French General,

arrival in America, 382;

despatches to De Grasse, 384, 388;

consultation with Washington, 387, 399;

marches against Cornwallis, 389.

Rodney, Sir George B., afterward Lord, British Admiral,

commands squadron in reduction of Martinique, 314;

commander-in-chief in West Indies, 377;

takes or disperses a Spanish squadron, 377, 404, 500 (and note);