Handwork in Wood

Fig. 259. Column-Clamp.

Another method is to glue and clamp the pieces of the taboret together two by two, using blocks as shown in Fig. 258, a. Care should be taken to put the pressure of the handscrews as far out as possible so as to be sure that the outside of the joint closes. This method has the advantage that, as only one joint is glued at a time, the work can be done more deliberately. Moreover, if when three pairs of a six-sided taboret are together, the other three joints do not fit exactly, they can then be refitted.

Another method is to glue pieces of soft wood on the exterior of each pieces as shown in Fig. 258, c. These blocks should be of such shape that the opposite sides of each pair are parallel. When the glue is dry, they are used as corners on which to clamp the handscrews. This method has the disadvantage that the blocks may break loose at a critical moment.

In addition to any of these methods of tightening the joints, to make sure that the ends of the joints close tight, pinch-dogs, Fig. 178, p. 102, may be driven into the end grain, and corrugated fasteners, Fig. 228, p. 125, also driven into the ends, make the joint quite secure.

No. 53. A doweled miter is one in which one or more dowels are inserted and glued into holes bored into the beveled edges. It may be used instead of nails, as in large picture frames.

Fig. 268-53 Doweled miter

No. 54. A spline or tongue miter is one which has a spline or tongue inserted at right angles to the joint. Since it furnishes more gluing surface, it is stronger than a plain miter.

Fig. 268-54 Spline miter

No. 55. A slip-feather or slip-key miter is one which is strengthened by a slip of hardwood glued into a saw kerf cut across the mitered angle. It is used in picture-frames and in boxes.

Fig. 268-55 Slip feather miter

No. 56. A slip-dovetail miter is one in which a trapezoidal shaped key is inserted in a dovetail socket cut straight across the miter. When dressed off, it gives the appearance of a dovetail on each face. It is used for the same purpose as a spline miter.

Fig. 268-56 Slip dovetail miter

No. 57. A double dovetail keyed miter is one in which a double dovetail key made of hard wood is inlaid across the joint. This is a favorite joint with Oriental joiners.

Fig. 268-57 Double dovetail keyed

No. 58. A ledge and miter or lipped miter joint is made by rabbeting and mitering the boards to be joined so that the outer portion of the two boards meet in a miter. It is strong and good looking and may be glued or nailed. It is used for fine boxes.

Fig. 268-58 Ledge and miter

No. 59. A stopped miter is useful for joining pieces of different widths, when both sides can be seen.

Fig. 268-59 Stopped miter

No. 60. A double-tongue miter is made by cutting on the adjoining edges tongues which engage in each other. It is used in high class joinery, on members that join lengthwise of the grain.

Fig. 268-60 Double tongue miter

No. 61. A stretcher joint is a slip joint in which one or both sides is mitered. It is used in frames for stretching canvass for paintings by driving wedges from the inside. Two forms are shown in 61a and 61b.

Fig. 268-61 Stretcher

No. 62. A strut joint is a form of miter joint used in making trusses.

Fig. 268-62 Strut

No. 63 and 64. A thrust joint or tie joint or toe joint is one in which two beams meet at an oblique angle, one receiving the thrust of the other. The toe may be either square as in 63, or oblique as in 64. The pieces are bolted or strapped together with iron. It is used for the batter braces of bridges.

Fig. 268-63 Square thrust

Fig. 268-64 Oblique thrust

No. 65. A plain brace joint is one in which the brace is simply mitered and nailed into place. It is used for bracket supports.

Fig. 269-65 Brace

No. 66. A housed brace joint is a joint in which the brace is housed into the rectangular members except that the outer end of the mortise is cut at right angles and the inner end diagonally to receive the brace which is cut to correspond. It is much stronger than 65.

Fig. 269-66 Housed brace

No. 67. An oblique mortise-and-tenon or bevel-shoulder joint is one in which the shoulders of the tenoned beam are cut obliquely and its end is cut off at right angles. The cheeks of the mortise are correspondingly sunk. By these means the tenon prevents lateral motion while the whole width of the beam presses against the abutment. Thus a much larger bearing surface is obtained. The whole is bolted or strapped together. It is used in heavy truss work.

Fig. 269-67 Oblique mortise and tenon

No. 68. A bridle joint is an oblique joint in which a bridle or "tongue" is left in an oblique notch cut out of one beam. Over this tongue is fitted a grooved socket cut obliquely in the other beam. It is used in truss construction.

Fig. 269-68 Bridle

No. 69. A bird's mouth joint is an angular notch cut in a timber to allow it to fit snugly over the member on which it rests. It is used in rafters where they fit over the plate.

Fig. 269-69 Bird's mouth

No. 70. A plain or rubbed or squeezed or glue joint is one in which the edges of two boards are glued and rubbed together tight. It is used in table-tops, drawing-boards, etc.

Fig. 269-70 Glue

To make this joint, first the boards are all laid down flat, side by side, and arranged in the proper order. Three considerations determine what this order is to be: (1), if the grain is of prime importance, as in quartered oak, then the boards are arranged so as to give the best appearance of the grain. (2), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that the warping of each board shall counteract that of the adjacent ones. For this purpose the boards are so laid that the annual rings of one shall alternate in direction with the annual rings of the next, Fig. 280, a, p. 186. (3), if possible, the boards should be so arranged that after being glued together they can all be planed smooth in the same direction. When the above requirements have been met so far as possible, this order should be marked on adjoining edges for later identification. The edges of the boards to be joined should be finished with a jointer.

There are two principal methods of gluing edge-to-edge joints, rubbing and squeezing. In a rubbed joint, the surfaces to be joined should be planed so as to meet thruout exactly. After properly planing one edge of each board, keep one board in the vise, jointed edge up, and place its to-be neighbor in position upon it. Then use these four tests for an exact fit. (1) Sight down the end to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (2) Examine the crack from both sides. Be sure that both ends touch. Test this by pulling down hard on one end of the upper board and noticing if the other end is still in contact. If the other end opens, swing the upper board horizontally on the lower board to see where the high place is and then correct it. (3) See if the upper board stands firmly on the lower board by feeling gently to see if it rocks, or by rapping lightly the lower board. (4) Slide the top board slowly on the lower one to see if it adheres or "sucks."

Fig. 260. Applying Glue for an Edge-to-Edge Joint.

After the pieces have been warmed, which should be done if possible, the glue is spread on them, Fig. 260, and they are then rubbed slowly back and forth in the direction of the grain, pressure being applied by the hand and care being taken not to open the joint in the least. As the glue sets, the rubbing becomes more difficult. It should be stopped when the boards are in their proper relative positions. In rubbing together the edges of two boards, handscrews may be fastened to one in such a way that their jaws serve as guides for the other board to slide between, Fig. 261. Care must be taken to make the jaws of the handscrew diverge enough not to pinch the upper board.

Fig. 261. Rubbing a Glued Joint.

Another method is to clamp a spare board alongside and projecting above the lower board. This spare board acts as a guide against which the upper board can be pushed as it is rubbed back and forth. The rubbed joint is especially suitable for short boards.

In joining long boards, a squeezed joint is common. In this case, the edges are planed so as to be very slightly concave from end to end. The object of this is to counteract the subsequent shrinkage which is likely to take place at the ends of the boards before it does at the middle. The pressure of the clamps may be depended upon to close up the middle, and, especially if dowels are inserted, as in No. 75, the joint will be strong enough to resist the elasticity of the boards.

When the fit is good, warm the wood if possible, prepare the clamps, put a thin film of glue over both edges which are to be together, apply the clamps rapidly, keeping the faces flush, and set away to dry for at least six hours. Then another piece may be added in the same manner. If the boards are thin and wide, and therefore likely to buckle, they may first be handscrewed to cross-strips to prevent their buckling. The cross-strips are, of course, slightly shorter than the combined width of the boards so that the full pressure of the clamps may come on the glued joint.

No. 71. A rebated, rabbeted or fillistered joint. Rebating is the cutting of a rectangular slip out of the side of a piece of wood. The re-entering angle left upon the wood is called the rebate or rabbet. A rebated joint, then, is one in which corresponding rebates are taken off edges so that the joined boards may overlap. It is used in flooring and siding.

Fig. 269-71 Rabbeted

A board is rebated and filleted when two adjoining rebates are filled with a fillet.

Fig. 262. Edge-to-Edge Joint, Doweled.

No. 72. A matched or tongue-and-groove joint is made by making a projection or "tongue" in the center of the edge of one board, and a corresponding groove in the center of the other so that they will match together. When used for flooring, the lower side of the grooved board is slightly rebated so that the upper edges will surely touch. This sort of flooring can be blind-nailed.

Fig. 269-72 Matched

No. 73. A beaded joint is similar to a matched joint except that a bead is worked on one edge to disguise the joint for decorative purposes.

Fig. 269-73 Beaded

No. 74. A spline-joint is made by plowing corresponding grooves in the edges to be joined and inserting a spline or slip-feather. It is used in plank flooring.

Fig. 269-74 Spline

No. 75. A doweled joint is made by jointing the two edges carefully, boring holes opposite each other and inserting dowel pins when the two edges are glued together. It is used in table tops, etc.

Fig. 269-75 Doweled

Where the boards are thick enough to allow it, a squeezed joint is greatly strengthened by the insertion of dowels.

The essential point in inserting dowels is to have the holes for them directly opposite one another and at right angles to the surface. The following is a convenient method where boards are to be joined edge to edge, Fig. 262. Place the two boards back to back in the vise with the edges and ends flush. Determine approximately where the dowels are to be inserted. With the gage, mark short lines at the points of insertion in the center of each edge, gaging from the outside faces. Across these lines score accurately with a try-square and knife. Then bore the holes with a dowel-bit at the intersection of the lines, Fig. 263. If this is carefully done, the holes will be directly opposite one another, and equidistant from the faces of both boards. All the holes should be of equal depth, say 1", in order that the dowel-pins, which should also be cut of equal lengths, may be interchangeable. After boring, the holes may be slightly countersunk in order to insure a tight joint and the easy slipping of the pins into place. The latter result may also be obtained by slightly pointing the pins with a dowel-pointer, Fig. 123, p. 83. It is also a wise precaution to cut a small groove along the length of the pin to allow superfluous glue to escape from the hole. The dowel should be dipped in glue and inserted when the glue is applied to the joint.

Fig. 263. Boring for Dowels in an Edge-to-Edge Joint.

THE COMMON JOINTS

References17

Rivington, Vol. I, pp. 57-77, 135-137, 238-242; Vol.II, pp. 291-295.

Adams, pp. 1-30.

Sickels, pp. 86-124.

Goss, pp. 128-152.

Ellis, pp. 135-151.

Barter, pp. 211-275.

Selden, pp. 56-130.

Building Trades Pocketbook, pp. 217-221, 237.

Griffith, pp. 86-104, 164-170.

Fig. 264

1 Lapped and Strapped

2 Fished

3 Fished and keyed

4 Spliced for compression

5 Spliced for tension

6 Spliced and Tabled

7 Spliced for cross strain

8 Dowelled butt

9 Toe-nailed

10 Draw-bolt

11 Plain butt

12 Glued and blocked

13 Hopper

14 Cross lap

Fig. 264

Fig. 265

15 Middle lap

16 End lap

17 End lap with rabbet

18 Dovetail halving

19 Beveled halving

20 Notched

21 Checked

22 Cogged

23 Forked

Fig. 265

Fig. 266

24 Rabbet

25 Dado

26 Dado and rabbet

27 Dado tongue and rabbet

28 Dovetail dado

29 Gain

30 Stub mortise and tenon

31 Thru mortise and tenon

32 Blind mortise and tenon

33 Mortise and tenon with rabbet

34 Wedged mortise and tenon

35 Wedged mortise and tenon

36 Fox tail tenon

37 Dovetail mortise and tenon

Fig. 266

Fig. 267

38 Pinned mortise and tenon

39 Keyed mortise and tenon

40 Tusk tenon

41 Double mortise and tenon

42 Haunched mortise and tenon

43 Table haunching

44 Bare faced tenon

45 Housed mortise and tenon

46 Slip

47 Thru single dovetail

48 Thru multiple dovetail

49 Lap dovetail

50 Stopped lap dovetail

51 Blind dovetail

Fig. 267

Fig. 268

52 Miter

53 Doweled miter

54 Spline miter

55 Slip feather miter

56 Slip dovetail miter

57 Double dovetail keyed

58 Ledge and miter

59 Stopped miter

60 Double tongue miter

61 Stretcher

62 Strut

63 Square thrust

64 Oblique thrust

Fig. 268

Fig. 269

65 Brace

66 Housed brace

67 Oblique mortise and tenon

68 Bridle

69 Bird's mouth

70 Glue

71 Rabbeted

72 Matched

73 Beaded

74 Spline

75 Doweled

Fig. 269

Chapter VIII.

TYPES OF WOODEN STRUCTURES

The articles suitable to be made in wood with hand tools may for convenience be divided into four general classes: (1) Unjoined pieces; (2) board structures; (3) panel structures; (4) framed structures. A few illustrations of each class are given below.

(1) SIMPLE OR UNJOINED PIECES

Of these there are a number that are advantageous for the learning of tool processes; at the same time they give opportunity for expression in design, and when finished are of use.

Examples are: key-boards, chiseling-boards, bread-boards, sleeve-boards, ironing-boards, coat- and skirt-hangers, and gouged trays. Some of these are so simple as to include hardly any process but planing, directions for which are given above, p. 72.

Fig. 270. Pen-Tray.

Where there is more than one process involved, the order of procedure is of importance. In general, a safe rule to follow in each case is to plane up the piece true and square, or, in technical language, to "true" it up. At least as many of its surfaces should be trued as are necessary for the "lay out." Where the piece is to be rectangular all the surfaces should be true; where some of the surfaces are to be curved it is unnecessary and a waste of time to square them first. For example, in making a gouged tray with curved outline, Fig. 270, the working face, the working edge, and the thickness should all be true before the plan is laid out. Then, after the outline is drawn, the trough may be gouged, the outline cut with turning-saw, chisel, and spokeshave, and the edges molded with the gouge or chisel. If there is incised decoration it should be cut before the molding is cut, so that while being incised, the piece will lie flat without tipping.

These simple pieces, as well as others, are often embellished by chamfering. A chamfer is a surface produced by cutting away an arris. It differs from a bevel in that a bevel inclines all the way to the next arris, while a chamfer makes a new arris, Fig. 271. A thru chamfer extends the whole length or width of a piece, while a stop chamfer extends only part way. For the laying out of a chamfer see p. 115.

Fig. 271. Difference Between Chamfer and Bevel.

Thru chamfering is best done with a plane, Fig. 272. For this purpose the piece may be held in the bench-vise and the plane tipped to the proper angle, or the piece may be held in a handscrew which in turn is held in the vise as in Fig. 175, p. 101. The chamfers with the grain should be planed before those across the grain.

Fig. 272. Thru Chamfering.

In chamfering a four-square stick into an eight-square, the piece may be gripped in the vise diagonally, Fig. 273, or it may be held in a trough made of two strips of wood from each of which an arris has been chamfered and then the two nailed together, Fig. 274. A dowel or nail may be inserted in the trough for a stop. Stop chamfers are pared best with a chisel, Fig. 275, held according to convenience either flat side or bevel side up. See under chisel, p. 53.

Fig. 273. Piece Held in Vise to Chamfer.

Fig. 274. Trough for Planing Chamfers.

Fig. 275. Stop Chamfering.

(2) BOARD STRUCTURES

These include such pieces as wall brackets, sets of shelves, book-racks, plate-racks, drawing-boards, foot-stools, taborets, and boxes.

The advantage of this form of construction is that it is comparatively easy to make; the disadvantage is that if the boards are wide, they are sure to shrink and swell. It is wise in all such work to true and smooth up all the pieces at once, and if the wood is not thoroly seasoned, to keep the boards under pressure till they are assembled. In the case of several boards to be jointed into one piece, they should be glued together before the surfaces are smoothed. Suggestions regarding a few typical pieces follow:

Wall Brackets. (1) There are three essential parts, the shelf, the support or supports, and the back: the shelf to hold the articles, the support to hold up the shelf, and the back to hold all together, Fig. 276, a. The grain of the wood in the shelf should run left and right, not forward and back, because thus it rests on the support in such a way as not to break easily, and it also acts as a stiffener for the back. In case the back extends above the shelf, as in Fig. 276, a, the shelf can be secured firmly to the back, since there is side grain in which to drive nails or screws. As to the direction of the grain of the support and the back, this should run in the direction of the largest dimension of each. Where the back is long horizontally, for security in hanging, it is better to have two supports.18

Fig. 276. Wall Brackets, Double-Hung: a. Single Support. b. Double Support.

Wall book-shelves, Fig. 277, plate-racks, etc., are simply compound brackets. The shelf is the essential piece, the sides take the place of the supports, and the back is often reduced to strips merely wide enough to give rigidity.

The shelves may be either gained into the supports, Fig. 266, No. 28 or No. 29, p. 179, or a keyed mortise-and-tenon may be used, Fig. 277. In the latter case the back strip may have a short barefaced blind tenon which is mortised into the upright, Fig. 278. It also fits into a rabbet on the upper back side of the shelf. Made in this way the shelves can be knocked down easily.