Numbers: B2+

sample A sample of people or things is a number of them chosen out of a larger group and then used in tests or surveys, or used to provide information about the whole group.

Exercise 5

For the investigations listed in the table below, describe the population and decide if it would be practical or impractical to carry out a census to find out information on the whole population.

Investigation Sample population Census: practical or impractical? 1 Finding out how many hours of homework are completed each week by the pupils in a specific class in a school. 2 Finding out the number of pets that are owned by adults in London. 3 Finding out the number of pages in each book in a large library. 4 Finding out how many children in the UK walk to school in the morning.

Avoiding bias

Using sample data, you can only draw conclusions and make estimates about the entire population if you choose a sample of things or people that represents the whole population fairly. If your sample is not representative of the population, then it is known as a biased sample.

The table below describes some samples taken for different investigations, and explains why these samples are not representative of the population. Can you work out why the sample is biased for the last two investigations?

Glossary

biased If someone is biased, they prefer one group of people to another, and behave unfairly as a result. You can also say that a process or system is biased.

Investigation Sample Why the sample is biased The value of all houses in Bristol Houses in one street in Bristol Houses in the same street are likely to be similar in size, so the sample only fairly represents that street rather than all the houses in Bristol, which will vary considerably in size and therefore in value. The favourite football team of men aged 20–40 in the UK Men aged 20–40 who go to a football match between Manchester City and Manchester United in February People’s opinion about whether driving a car is the best way to travel to work Drivers who have just parked their car in a company car park

Tip

Ask someone else to look at your planned sample before you start your research and ask them if they can see any bias. It can be difficult to look at it objectively yourself, so help and guidance will be useful here.

Exercise 6

Match the words or phrases on the left to a definition on the right.

1 carry out a the group you want to investigate 2 investigation b a study of the whole group 3 population c to do a particular piece of work, research, etc. 4 census d not giving a fair representation of the entire population 5 sampling e typical of people or things in a particular group 6 draw a/the conclusion f the process of trying to discover all the details or facts about something to discover who or what caused it or how it happened 7 estimate g to say what you think an amount or value will be, based on the available information to calculate it 8 bias h to decide what to believe about something after you have considered the facts 9 representative I the process of selecting part of the whole population for your investigation

Exercise 7

Complete these sentences with words from Exercise 6. You may need to change the form of some words.

1 The sample was not large enough to be ________of the whole population.

2 Poor ________meant that it was difficult to draw conclusions.

3 The study was ________over a three-month period.

4 The study aimed to ________the effects of advertising on children.

5 The sample was ________towards middle aged men.

6 The ________net spend per month was £500.

7 A national ________is carried out in the UK every few years.

8 The ________under investigation was international students in the UK.

9 We can ________the ________that advertising has a significant impact on children’s spending patterns.

Formulating a hypothesis

A hypothesis is something that you plan to test in your research and is related to forming your research question. The hypothesis usually states that something will or will not happen. It is something that you would write before starting your research; you plan to see if it is true or not after doing your research.

Glossary

construct In the area of research, a construct is an idea, belief, or subject which is based on evidence which may not be true, and which you want to test and measure.

objectively If you look at something objectively, you base your opinions on facts rather than on your personal feelings.

Examples of hypotheses:

Language is the main challenge in adapting to another culture.

Low income is the main reason for job dissatisfaction.

Blueberries have a positive impact on the mind.

Each of these hypotheses is formed from two or more constructs and often makes a claim for cause and effect. For example:

Cause Effect language ability ability to adapt to another culture income level job satisfaction consumption of blueberries impact on the mind

A construct is something that can be tested or questioned objectively. For example, in the first hypothesis above we could ask:

How can culture be defined?

How can adaptation be measured?

What factors affect adaptation?

How are language and culture related?

Does language impact on adaptation?

Exercise 8

What is the purpose of a hypothesis and what should it clearly state?

Exercise 9

Look at the other two hypotheses from the previous page. What questions could you ask yourself about these hypotheses?

Low income is the main reason for job dissatisfaction.

1 How is job satisfaction defined?

2 ________

3 ________

4 ________

5 ________

6 ________

Blueberries have a positive impact on the mind.

1 What foods have a positive impact on the mind?

2 ________

3 ________

4 ________

A piece of research may contain more than one hypothesis that will be tested. Another common thing other than cause and effect that is tested is a comparison between two groups or classes.

Example:

Single sex schools produce better academic results than other schools. They are also more of an advantage for girls than boys.

Here the hypothesis is looking at the cause and effect relationship between single sex schools and academic success but it is also making a comparison between boys and girls.

Exercise 10

Which of the following hypotheses make a comparison?

1 People who regularly use computers suffer from more health issues than those who do not use them.

2 Men make more impulse purchases than women.

3 It is more difficult to learn a second language after the age of 20 than before it.

4 Independent study increases academic success.

5 Three minutes’ intensive exercise is enough to maintain fitness levels.

Exercise 11

Look at these possible causes and their effects. Can you join them together to write a hypothesis for each one?

1 Travel abroad > malaria

Travelling abroad increases the risk of catching malaria.

2 Recycling > save money

3 Low temperatures > car accidents

4 Language learning > cultural awareness

Remember

It is important to be specific in your research question.

You need to define and clearly state your question early on in the research process.

Sampling can have a significant impact on your research and should be done carefully.

It is important to choose the most appropriate research methods.

You can use hypotheses as part of your research process.

3

Research Methods

Aims

understand some common research methods

understand when to use interviews, questionnaires and focus groups

understand the advantages and disadvantages of common research methods

Quiz

Self-evaluation

Read the statements below. Circle the answers that are true for you.

1 I know the difference between some of the more common research methods. agree | disagree | not sure 2 I know when to use interviews, questionnaires and focus groups. agree | disagree | not sure 3 I know how to construct an effective questionnaire and conduct a successful interview and focus group. agree | disagree | not sure 4 I understand the advantages and disadvantages of some common research methods. agree | disagree | not sure

A wide range of research methods is available for you to choose from when you conduct a research project. The key is to choose the most appropriate method or methods for your research aims. In Social Sciences, particularly with projects at undergraduate level, three of the most common methods are interviews, questionnaires and focus groups. This, of course, does not mean you need to limit yourself to these methods.

This chapter looks at some of the main research methods, at some of their main advantages and disadvantages and gives a brief overview of some other methods of research. The following two chapters look in more detail at how to produce a questionnaire and conduct an interview.

For more information on other research methods, see Further reading.

Choosing your research method

A research method is the way in which you choose to collect your data. A wide range of research methods can be used to gather data. This section will give you an overview before looking in more detail at some of the main advantages and disadvantages of four key research methods: questionnaires, focus groups, interviews and experiments. This is then followed by a brief overview of some other methods to consider. When you select your method it is important to choose one that will effectively help you to answer your research question or test your hypothesis. It is also important to be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Questionnaires

Many students choose to do a survey using a questionnaire as it is commonly believed that the method is easy. A questionnaire doesn’t involve the pressure of an interview, and the answers are conveniently written down for future analysis. However, it can be challenging to write an effective questionnaire.

Questionnaires can be distributed in a variety of ways and there is a varying amount of success in getting responses back. The questions are typically predominantly aimed at gathering quantitative data, but an element of qualitative data can also be gathered.

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