The spreadsheet opposite records the food purchased by a shopper at a supermarket. Row 1 in this grid is used to show the names of the columns so that it is easy to understand what information is being stored.

A spreadsheet is very useful for performing simple calculations. It uses formulae to perform operations such as addition, subtraction and multiplication.

The following spreadsheet shows the different nationalities of students enrolled on an English course. It includes a formula which uses the individual numbers of each nationality to calculate the total number of students enrolled on the course. The formula is usually hidden from view and only the result is displayed.

Glossary

formula A formula is a group of letters, numbers or other symbols which represents a scientific or mathematical rule.

The formula SUM(B2:B8) is used to calculate the total of number of students enrolled on the course. It adds up the numbers in cells B2 to B8. If a number in one of these cells is changed, then the result of the formula is automatically updated by the spreadsheet.

So, if another French student enrols on the course, then the cell B5 becomes 4 and the total in cell B10 is changed automatically to 44 to include the new student.

Once you have organized your data in a spreadsheet, it is then possible to use the computer program to create graphs and charts to display the information in a visual way. The bar chart below has been created using the data in the previous example.

For more information on graphics, see Chapter 8.

Tip

When using spreadsheets, you can click on the Help button in the computer program to search for advice on how to use formulae for calculations.

Using graphics

A number of different visuals are used in academic writing to present data or information. In academic texts they are often referred to as figures, but sometimes a wider range of terms such as chart and table are used as well. A pie chart is used to show the proportion of something in different segments. A key is used to label a pie chart when there are many sections. A bar chart is used to compare different amounts of something. A line graph is used to show trends or patterns. The axes are labelled to show what data is being presented. The x axis is horizontal and the y axis is vertical. A table is a grid with columns and rows of numbers. Diagrams are often used to describe functions. For example, they may show the organization of a company or the stages in the process involved in manufacturing or in decision-making.

Glossary

proportion A proportion of a group or an amount is a part of it.

trend A trend is a change or development towards something new or different.

Exercise 13

Look at the pictures below and label them with words from the box.

Exercise 14

Put the words in brackets into the correct position and form in each sentence.

1 The x axis goes ________and the y axis goes ________. (horizontal / vertical)

2 A ________goes vertically and a ________goes horizontally. (row / column)

3 A ________is used to ________a ________. With a ________the ________needs to be labelled. (label / key / pie chart / line graph / axis)

4 How many ________are there in the ________above? (segment / pie chart)

5 Graphics in academic writing are often referred to as ________but sometimes as ________or tables. (chart / figure)

6 Pie charts are generally used to show the ________of something and line graphs to show ________. (trend / proportion)

Referring to graphics in writing

Although graphics generally speak for themselves, it is common to make a brief reference to them in writing to introduce what they show. This can be done with a range of basic phrases, for example:

As can be seen in Figure 12.1, …

From Table 2.1, it can be concluded that …

Language: relative clauses

Relative clauses can be a useful structure for summarizing or referring to key information in a graphic. For example:

The graph shows the number of students from India who were given visas in 2010 was 58,000.

The table shows that the number of students who come from the USA is getting bigger.

In academic writing, relative clauses are often used for defining; in the case of data, they are used to describe or define exactly who or what you are referring to. Note that the relative pronoun (who, whose, which, that) will change depending on what you are defining. For people, use who, that or whose (possessive):

The graph shows people who are motivated by goals often have short-term satisfaction.

The graph shows that people that set realistic goals often enhance their performance.

The chart demonstrates that companies whose managers are not aware of employee motivation are less likely to be successful.

For most things or ideas, use that or which:

The table shows companies that use money as a means to motivate employees.

The table shows teams which use a sports psychologist to motivate teams.

For more information on describing graphics, see Chapters 8 and 9.

Exercise 15

Complete the table with words from the box.

As is shown graph 2.3 in It can be seen from

As can be seen from 2 ________ Table 3.2, Figure 9.6 3 ________ … that … It can be seen 1 ________ in According to 4 ________

Exercise 16

Match 1–5 with a–e to form sentences including a relative clause.

1 The charts shows that students are more likely to borrow a book a whose job is under threat are likely to be demotivated. 2 The table shows employees b who have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are more likely to succeed. 3 The chart shows people c which students find more challenging. 4 The chart shows areas of study d who receive praise outperform others. 5 The chart shows that workers e that is recommended by a course tutor.

Tip

Try to record all new vocabulary in a similar way and regularly test yourself on the new words.

Remember

You might have to use spreadsheets to analyse your data.

The main purpose and use of statistics.

Relative clauses are useful for referring to and labelling graphics in writing.

The different stages from collection to presentation of data.

Starting Primary Research

Aims

practise formulating research questions

understand the principles of sampling

learn how to formulate a hypothesis

Quiz

Self-evaluation

Read the statements below. Circle the answers that are true for you.

Early planning and good organization are key to a successful research project. What you decide to research can vary greatly depending on the field you are in, but there are two main starting points: formulating research questions, or formulating a hypothesis to test. Whether you choose one, the other or both, there are some important points to consider:

Does this area interest you enough? After all, this project will become a large part of your life for quite some time.

Has this area been researched before? If so, what new things are you hoping to add with this study?

How does this build on previous research in the area?

Are the research aims focused and limited enough? You will have a limited amount of time and words to complete the project, so it needs to be realistic.

Do you have access to a reasonable cross-section of the population you wish to study?

This chapter will help you to consider some of these key issues. It gives you practical steps to formulate research questions, and helps you understand the basic principles of sampling and to understand the cause and effect nature of hypotheses.

Formulating research questions

Doing a research project is both exciting and challenging at the same time. Research projects at the end of a Bachelor’s or Master’s (BA, BSc, MA, MSc) degree are commonly called a dissertation or a thesis. You usually have a lot of freedom to choose the area you want to research, although sometimes you may be given a choice of questions about a broad area of research to look into. You can start to think about the area you want to research very early on, but try not to narrow it down too soon before you are ready to begin.

It is a good idea to choose a topic or area that interests you, perhaps from a module you enjoyed or a topic that has stimulated your interest in a new area. Sometimes it can be a challenge to think of an area, so talk about it with tutors, friends or other students and perhaps look at some previous projects in your area of study.

Exercise 1

Follow these steps to help find an area that interests you.

1 Brainstorm the different subjects from your degree.

2 Think about particularly interesting modules.

3 Think of an interesting area from that module.

4 Which of these topics particularly interests you?

Once you have a range of topics that interest you, the next step is to narrow it down. This is something that should be done quite quickly as you often have limited time. Thinking about your motivation is important because you will be spending a lot of time on the project. It is also important to try to think about how practical the project is.

Being specific

One of the biggest challenges is choosing a research question that is specific enough. The idea of writing 15,000 or 20,000 words in your own language can make people feel quite worried, and doing it in another language for your Bachelor’s or Master’s degree can seem even more challenging. Many of the English exams to gain entry to a university only require students to write 250 words in English. So when, in perhaps just nine months of completing that test, you have to write 20,000 words, very few people worry about being specific. Many think – can I write that much? When people choose a topic that is too broad it can be difficult to answer in 15,000 to 20,000 words as there are too many things to cover. It can create problems conducting the literature review as you will have too many things to read. It could also mean that you do not have the time or resources to conduct your own research and write it up. Try to build on topics. Think about the following: has this area already been well researched? Is there a clear research methodology I could use? Can I bring a slightly new perspective to the topic? How specific you need to be will vary between courses, but it is essential you think about these questions in order to make your project realistic.

Glossary

specific If someone is specific, they give a description that is precise and exact.

Exercise 2

Which of these research questions sounds specific enough?

1 Does regular exercise reduce stress levels in men aged 18–25?

2 Will a high-fibre and low-fat diet be sufficient to reduce cholesterol levels in middle-aged women?

3 Does exercise improve mental health?

4 Does motivation affect levels of effort?

Tip

Try to be as focused as you can from the start. Look at as many previous students’ dissertations as possible to help guide you. Ask your supervisor for help and guidance when you feel you need it.

Exercise 3

Think about your possible research question and ask yourself these questions.

1 Can you answer your question in just a few months?

2 Is your question specific enough? Brainstorm all the different things you might include and then imagine how many words it might take to cover each.

3 Have you read previous students’ projects? How long was each section?

4 Once you have collected your data how will you analyse it? How long do you think this might take? If you are doing something that requires you to write down what was said, for example an interview, practise this by recording a friend and writing down what they say. Time yourself and then imagine how long this might take once you have interviewed the number of people you want to interview.

5 Can you get access easily to people you want to interview, use in a focus group or give your questionnaire to?

Exercise 4

Decide if the following statements are true or false.

1 Being broad in your research aims is positive. True / False 2 You shouldn’t read previous students’ work in case it’s not very good. True / False 3 Planning is key to a successful project. True / False 4 Transcribing is quick and simple. True / False 5 Finding a new angle on an existing topic is a good idea. True / False

Sampling

Population: when you carry out an investigation to find out information about a group of things or people, this group is known as the population.

Some examples of different populations are:

all the people who live in New York

all the books in a library

all the trees in a forest

all the nurses in a hospital

Glossary

population If you refer to a particular type of population in a country or area, you are referring to all the people or animals of that type there.

Census: you would need to carry out a census if you want to find out information about every member of a population. It is easier to carry out a census if you have a small number of people or things in your population, but if the population is very large then it is usually time-consuming, often expensive and sometimes impractical.

For example, if a biscuit manufacturer that bakes thousands of biscuits every day decided to find out how easily their biscuits break, a census would involve breaking every biscuit that they make. This would be impractical because the population is too big and it would be very time-consuming to test each biscuit individually.

Sampling: instead of carrying out a census of the whole population, you could decide to ask questions or observe just a small group of the things or people within that population. This is called sampling. Using a sample can be a lot less expensive, quicker and much easier than carrying out a census. When you have collected information from a sample, it is then possible to draw conclusions and make estimates about the entire population.

For example, the biscuit manufacturer in the previous example could use a sample to find out how easily their biscuits break by choosing 100 biscuits of different varieties for testing.

Glossary

census A census is an official survey of the population of a country that is carried out in order to find out how many people live there and to obtain details of such things as people’s ages and jobs.

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