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Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being.
Like concretes, resinoids are employed in perfumery as fixatives to prolong the effect of the fragrance.
Absolutes
An absolute is obtained from the concrete by a second process of solvent extraction, using pure alcohol (ethanol) in which the unwanted wax is only slightly soluble. An absolute is usually subjected to repeated treatment with alcohol; even so, as is the case with orange flower absolute, a small proportion of the wax remains. Absolutes can be further processed by molecular distillation which removes every last trace of non-volatile matter. The alcohol is recovered by evaporation which requires a gentle vacuum towards the end of the process. Some absolutes, however, will still retain traces of ethyl alcohol, at about 2 per cent or less, and are not recommended for therapeutic work because of these impurities.
Absolutes are usually highly concentrated viscous liquids, but they can in some cases be solid or semi-solid (clary sage absolute). In recent years, much research has been devoted to the extraction of essential oils and aromatic materials using liquid carbon dioxide; oils produced in this manner are of excellent odour quality and are entirely free of unwanted solvent residues or non-volatile matter.
Pomades
True pomades are the products of a process known as enfleurage, which is virtually obsolete today. This was once the principal method for obtaining aromatic materials from flowers that continued to produce perfume long after they were cut. A glass plate was covered in a thin coating of specially prepared and odourless fat, called a chassis. The freshly cut flowers, such as jasmine or tuberose, were individually laid in the fat which became saturated with their volatile oils. The chassis would be frequently renewed with fresh material throughout the harvest. Eventually the fragrance-saturated fat, known as pomade, would be treated by extraction with alcohol to produce the pure absolute or perfume.
Periods of the year for the treatment of various flowers once grown in Provence, France
Natural versus ‘Nature Identical’
Many perfumes or oils, once obtained from flowers such as carnation, gardenia and lilac, are nowadays produced almost entirely synthetically. In the pharmaceutical industry these chemically constructed products are called ‘nature identical’. The perfumery and flavouring industries require continuity in their products and naturally occurring substances are always subject to change, due to seasonal conditions. However, the so-called ‘nature identical’ products and the naturally occurring essential oils are of an entirely different character, which is reflected in their relative costs – the synthetic types being much cheaper to produce than the genuine ones. Many aromatic oils, such as lavender or geranium, contain a relatively small number of major constituents, several minor constituents and also a very large number of trace elements. To reconstruct such a complex combination of components including all the trace elements, would be virtually impossible. Most ‘nature identical’ oils are said to be only about 96 per cent pure or accurate, yet it is the remaining 4 per cent, the trace elements, that often really define a particular fragrance. Such is the case with galbanum oil where the pyrazines, present at rather less than 0.1 per cent, are responsible for the powerful green odour of the oil.
It is also the specific combination of constituents in a real essential oil, including the trace elements, which give it value therapeutically. The reason for this might be that these minute amounts of trace elements have a synergistic or controlling effect on the main ones. For example, there are over 300 different constituents in rose, some of which have not yet been identified, which is why synthetic rose oil is unconvincing. ‘Nature identical’ oils cannot be used therapeutically as substitutes for the naturally occurring aromatic materials, not only because the subtle balance of constituents is lost but also because they lack the vital ‘life force’ of oils of natural origin.
A
AJOWAN
Trachyspermum copticum
FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS T. ammi, Ammi copticum, Carum ajowan, C. copticum, Ptychotis ajowan, ajuan, omum.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb with a greyish-brown seed, which resembles parsley in appearance.
DISTRIBUTION Chiefly India, also Afghanistan, Egypt, the West Indies and the Seychelle Islands.
OTHER SPECIES see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The seeds are used extensively in curry powders and as a general household remedy for intestinal problems. The tincture, essential oil and ‘thymol’ are used in Indian medicine, particularly for cholera.
ACTIONS Powerful antiseptic and germicide, carminative.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the seed.
CHARACTERISTICS A yellow-orange or reddish liquid with a herbaceous-spicy medicinal odour, much like thyme.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thymol, pinene, cymene, dipentene, terpinene and carvacrol, among others.
SAFETY DATA Possible mucous membrane and dermal irritant. Due to high thymol level, should be avoided in pregnancy. Toxicity levels are unknown.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Not recommended.
OTHER USES It has been used extensively for the isolation of thymol, but this has largely been replaced by synthetic thymol.
ALLSPICE
Pimenta dioica
FAMILY Myrtaceae
SYNONYMS P. officinalis, pimento, pimenta, Jamaica pepper.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen tree which reaches about 10 metres high and begins to produce fruit in its third year. Each fruit contains two kidney-shaped green seeds which turn glossy black upon ripening.
DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to the West Indies and South America, it is cultivated extensively in Jamaica, Cuba and, to a lesser degree, in Central America. Imported berries are distilled in Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES Four other varieties of pimento are found in Venezuela, Guyana and the West Indies which are used locally as spices.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for flatulent indigestion and externally for neuralgic or rheumatic pain. Pimento water is used as a vehicle for medicines which ease dyspepsia and constipation since it helps prevent griping pains. It is used extensively as a domestic spice – allspice is so called because it tastes like a combination of cloves, juniper berries, cinnamon and pepper.
ACTIONS Anaesthetic, analgesic, anti-oxidant, antiseptic, carminative, muscle relaxant, rubefacient, stimulant, tonic.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from 1. the leaves, and 2. the fruit. The green unripe berries contain more oil than the ripe berries, but the largest percentage of oil is contained in the shell of the fruit. An oleoresin from the berries is also produced in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS 1. Pimenta leaf oil is a yellowish-red or brownish liquid with a powerful sweet-spicy scent, similar to cloves. 2. Pimenta berry oil is a pale yellow liquid with a sweet warm balsamic-spicy bodynote (middle note) and fresh, clean top note. It blends well with ginger, geranium, lavender, opopanax, labdanum, ylang ylang, patchouli, neroli, oriental and spicy bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly eugenol, less in the fruit (60–80 per cent) than in the leaves (up to 96 per cent), also methyl eugenol, cineol, phellandrene and cryophyllene among others.
SAFETY DATA Eugenol irritates the mucous membranes, and has been found to cause dermal irritation. Pimenta leaf and berry oil should therefore be used with care in low dilutions only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Circulation, muscles and joints: Arthritis, fatigue, muscle cramp, rheumatism, stiffness etc. ‘Used in tiny amounts … in a massage oil for chest infections, for severe muscle spasm to restore mobility quickly, or where extreme cold is experienced.’1
Respiratory System: Chills, congested coughs, bronchitis.
Digestive System: Cramp, flatulence, indigestion, nausea.
Nervous System: Depression, nervous exhaustion, neuralgia, tension and stress.
OTHER USES Used in aromatic carminative medicines; as a fragrance component in cosmetics and perfumes, especially soaps, aftershaves, spicy and oriental fragrances. Both leaf and berry oil are used extensively for flavouring foods, especially savoury and frozen foods, as well as alcoholic and soft drinks.
ALMOND, BITTER
Prunus dulcis var. amara
FAMILY Rosaceae
SYNONYMS P. amygdalus var. amara, Amygdalus communis var. amara, A. dulcis, P. communis.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION The almond tree grows to a height of about 7 metres and is popular as a garden tree due to its pinky-white blossom. It is botanically classified as a drupe.
DISTRIBUTION Native to Western Asia and North Africa, it is now extensively cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region, Israel and California.
Almond Tree
OTHER SPECIES There are two main types of almond tree – bitter and sweet. The sweet almond does not produce any essential oil.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION A ‘fixed’ oil commonly known as ‘sweet almond oil’ is made by pressing the kernels from both the sweet and bitter almond trees. Unlike the essential oil, this fixed oil does not contain any benzaldehyde or prussic acid, and has many medical and cosmetic uses. It is used as a laxative, for bronchitis, coughs, heartburn and for disorders of the kidneys, bladder and biliary ducts. It helps relieve muscular aches and pains, softens the skin and premotes a clear complexion.
ACTIONS Anaesthetic, antispasmodic, narcotic, vermifuge (FFPA).
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the kernels. The nuts are first pressed and macerated in warm water for 12 to 24 hours before the oil is extracted. It is during this process that the prussic acid is formed; it is not present in the raw seed. Most commercial bitter almond oil is rectified to remove all prussic acid, i.e. free from prussic acid (FFPA).
CHARACTERISTICS Light colourless liquid with a characteristic ‘marzipan’ scent (FFPA).
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Benzaldehyde (95 per cent), prussic acid (3 per cent).
SAFETY DATA Prussic acid, also known as hydrocyanic acid or cyanide, is a well-known poison. Benzaldehyde is also moderately toxic.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None. ‘Should not be used in therapy either internally or externally.’2
OTHER USES Bitter almond oil is no longer used for internal medication. Rectified bitter almond oil is used for flavouring foods, mainly confectionery; the most common uses are ‘almond essence’ and marzipan. The oil (FFPA) is increasingly being replaced by synthetic benzaldehyde in food flavourings.
AMBRETTE SEED
Abelmoschus moschatus
FAMILY Malvaceae
SYNONYMS Hibiscus abelmoschus, musk seed, Egyptian alcee, target-leaved hibiscus, muskmallow.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION An evergreen shrub about 1.5 metres high, bearing large single yellow flowers with a purple centre. The capsules, in the form of five-cornered pyramids, contain the greyish-brown kidney-shaped seeds which have a musky odour.
DISTRIBUTION Indigenous to India; widely cultivated in tropical countries including Indonesia, Africa, Egypt, China, Madagascar, and the West Indies. Distillation of the oil is generally carried out in Europe and America.
OTHER SPECIES A variety, H. esculentus, is grown largely in Istanbul as a demulcent. Another variety is also found in Martinique, the seeds of which have a more delicate scent.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Generally used as a stimulant and to ease indigestion, cramp and nervous dyspepsia. In Chinese medicine it is used to treat headache; in Egypt the seeds are used to sweeten the breath and are made into an emulsion with milk to be used for itch. The Arabs use the seeds to mix with coffee. Widely used as a domestic spice in the East.
ACTIONS Antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, carminative, nervine, stimulant, stomachic.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of the seeds. Liquid ambrette seed oil should be allowed to age for several months before it is used. A concrete and absolute are also produced by solvent extraction.
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellowy-red liquid with a rich, sweet floral-musky odour, very tenacious. It blends well with rose, neroli, sandalwood, clary sage, cypress, patchouli, oriental and ‘sophisticated’ bases.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Ambrettolide, ambrettolic acid, palmitic acid and farnesol.
SAFETY DATA Available information indicates the oil to be non-toxic, non-irritant and non-sensitizing.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Circulation muscles and joints: Cramp, fatigue, muscular aches and pains, poor circulation.
Nervous System: Anxiety, depression, nervous tension and stress-related conditions.
OTHER USES Employed by the cosmetic and perfumery industries in oriental-type scents and for the adulteration of musk; also used as a musk substitute. Used for flavouring alcoholic and soft drinks as well as some foodstuffs, especially confectionery.
AMYRIS
Amyris balsamifera
FAMILY Rutaceae
SYNONYMS Schimmelia oleifera, West Indian sandalwood, West Indian rosewood.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A small bushy tree with compound leaves and white flowers which grows wild in thickets all over the island of Haiti.
DISTRIBUTION Mainly Haiti, it has now been introduced to tropical zones all over the world, e.g. Jamaica, South and Central America.
OTHER SPECIES Not to be confused with East Indian or Mysore sandalwood (Santalum album), to which it bears no relation.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The locals call it ‘candle wood’ because of its high oil content; it burns like a candle. It is used as a torch by fishermen and traders. It also makes excellent furniture wood.
ACTIONS Antiseptic, balsamic, sedative.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the broken-up wood and branches. Best if the wood is seasoned first. It provides a very plentiful yield.
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow, slightly viscous liquid with a musty, faintly woody scent, quickly fading away. It blends well with lavandin, citronella, oakmoss, sassafras, cedarwood and other wood oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Caryophyllene, cadinene and cadinol.
SAFETY DATA Generally non-irritant; no other information available at present.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE Perfume.
OTHER USES As a cheap substitute for East Indian sandalwood in perfumes and cosmetics, although it does not have the same rich tenacity; chiefly employed as a fixative in soaps. Limited application in flavouring work, especially liqueurs.
ANGELICA
Angelica archangelica
FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS A. officinalis, European angelica, garden angelica.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large hairy plant with ferny leaves and umbels of white flowers. It has a strong aromatic scent and a large rhizome.
DISTRIBUTION Native to Europe and Siberia, cultivated mainly in Belgium, Hungary and Germany.
OTHER SPECIES There are over thirty different types of angelica but this is the most commonly used medicinally. see Botanical Classification section.
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb has been praised for its virtues since antiquity.
Angelica
It strengthens the heart, stimulates the circulation and the immune system in general. It has been used for centuries in Europe for bronchial ailments, colds, coughs, indigestion, wind and to stimulate the appetite. As a urinary antiseptic it is helpful in cystitis and is also used for rheumatic inflammation. The Chinese employ at least ten kinds of angelica, well known for promoting fertility, fortifying the spirit and for treating female disorders generally; it has a reputation second only to ginseng. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for bronchitis associated with vascular deficiency. Candied Angelica stalks are popular in France and Spain.
ACTIONS Antispasmodic, carminative, depurative, diaphoretic, digestive, diuretic, emmenagogue, expectorant, febrifuge, nervine, stimulant, stomachic, tonic. Reported to have bactericidal and fungicidal properties.
EXTRACTION Essential oil produced by steam distillation from the 1. roots and rhizomes, and, 2. fruit or seed. An absolute is also produced on a small scale, from the roots.
CHARACTERISTICS 1. A colourless or pale yellow oil which turns yellowy-brown with age, with a rich herbaceous-earthy bodynote. 2. The seed oil is a colourless liquid with a fresher, spicy top note. It blends well with patchouli, opopanax, costus, clary sage, oakmoss, vetiver and with citrus oils.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Root and seed oil contain phellandrene, pinene, limonene, linalol and borneol; rich in coumarins including osthol, angelicin, bergapten and imperatorin; also contains plant acids.
SAFETY DATA Both root and seed oil are non toxic and non-irritant. The root oil (not the seed oil) is phototoxic, probably due to higher levels of bergapten. Not to be used during pregnancy or by diabetics.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Skin Care: Dull and congested skin, irritated conditions, psoriasis.
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Accumulation of toxins, arthritis, gout, rheumatism, water retention.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive System: Anaemia, anorexia, flatulence, indigestion.
Nervous System: Fatigue, migraine, nervous tension and stress-related disorders.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES Highly valued as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions and perfumes especially colognes, oriental and heavy chypres fragrances. It is employed in some cosmetics for its soothing effect on skin complaints. Used extensively as a flavouring agent in most food categories, and in alcoholic and soft drinks, especially liqueurs.
ANISE, STAR
Illicium verum
FAMILY Illiciaceae
SYNONYMS Chinese anise, illicium, Chinese star anise.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION Evergreen tree up to 12 metres high with a tall, slender white trunk. It bears fruit which consist of five to thirteen seed-bearing follicles attached to a central axis in the shape of a star.
DISTRIBUTION Native to south east China, also Vietnam, India and Japan. Mainly produced in China.
OTHER SPECIES Several other related species, e.g. Japanese star anise which is highly poisonous!
HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used in Chinese medicine for over 1300 years for its stimulating effect on the digestive system and for respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and unproductive coughs. In the East generally, it is used as a remedy for colic and rheumatism, and often chewed after meals to sweeten the breath and promote digestion. A common oriental domestic spice.
Star Anise
ACTIONS Antiseptic, carminative, expectorant, insect repellent, stimulant.
EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the fruits, fresh or partially dried. An oil is also produced from the leaves in small quantities.
CHARACTERISTICS A pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy, extremely sweet, liquorice like scent. It blends well with rose, lavender, orange, pine and other spice oils, and has excellent masking properties.
PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (80–90 per cent).
SAFETY DATA Despite the anethole content, it does not appear to be a dermal irritant, unlike aniseed. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; it can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.
AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE
Circulation Muscles And Joints: Muscular aches and pains, rheumatism.
Respiratory System: Bronchitis, coughs.
Digestive System: Colic, cramp, flatulence, indigestion.
Immune system: Colds.
OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures, lozenges, etc. and to mask undesirable odours and flavours in drugs. As a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste and detergents as well as cosmetics and perfumes. Widely used for flavouring food, especially confectionery, alcoholic and soft drinks.
ANISEED
Pimpinella anisum
FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
SYNONYMS Anisum officinalis, A. vulgare, anise, sweet cumin.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION An annual herb, less than a metre high, with delicate leaves and white flowers.
DISTRIBUTION Native to Greece and Egypt, now widely cultivated mainly in India and China and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Spain.
OTHER SPECIES There are several different chemotypes of aniseed according to the country of origin. Not to be confused with star anise, which belongs to a different family altogether.
