Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being.

 Deodorants for excessive perspiration, cleaning wounds, etc; for example, bergamot, lavender, thyme, juniper, cypress, Spanish sage, lemongrass.

 Insect repellents and parasiticides for lice, fleas, scabies, ticks, mosquitos, ants, moths, etc; for example, spike lavender, garlic, geranium, citronella, eucalyptus, clove, camphor, Atlas cedarwood.

The Circulation, Muscles and Joints

Essential oils are easily absorbed via the skin and mucosa into the bloodstream, affecting the nature of the circulation as a whole. Oils with a rubefacient or warming effect not only cause a better local blood circulation, but also influence the inner organs. They bring a warmth and glow to the surface of the skin and can provide considerable pain relief through their analgesic or numbing effect. Such oils can relieve local inflammation by setting free mediators in the body which in turn cause the blood vessels to expand, so the blood is able to move more quickly and the swelling is reduced. Some oils like hyssop tend to have a balancing or regulating effect on the circulatory system as a whole, reducing the blood pressure if it is too high or stimulating the system if it is sluggish.

 Hypotensives for high blood pressure, palpitations, stress, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, ylang ylang, lavender, lemon.

 Hypertensives for poor circulation, chilblains, listlessness, etc; for example, rosemary, spike lavender, eucalyptus, peppermint, thyme.

 Rubefacients for rheumatism of the joints, muscular stiffness, sciatica, lumbago, etc; for example, black pepper, juniper, rosemary, camphor, sweet marjoram.

 Depurative or antitoxic agents for arthritis, gout, congestion, skin eruptions, etc; for example, juniper, lemon, fennel, lovage.

 Lymphatic stimulants for cellulitis, obesity, water retention, etc; for example, grapefruit, lime, fennel, lemon, mandarin, white birch.

 Circulatory tonics and astringents for swellings, inflammations, varicose veins, etc; for example, cypress, yarrow, lemon.

The Respiratory System

Nose, throat and lung infections are conditions which respond very well to treatment with essential oils. Inhalation is a very effective way of utilizing their properties, for ‘although after arriving in the bronchi the main part will be exhaled directly by the lungs, they cause an increased bronchial secretion (a protective reaction) which is beneficial for many respiratory ailments’.10 By inhalation they are absorbed into the blood circulation even faster than by oral application. In addition, most essential oils which are absorbed from the stomach are then excreted via the lungs, only a small part in the urine.

 Expectorants for catarrh, sinusitis, coughs, bronchitis, etc; for example, eucalyptus, pine, thyme, myrrh, sandalwood, fennel.

 Antispasmodics for colic, asthma, dry cough, whooping cough, etc; for example, hyssop, cypress, Atlas cedarwood, bergamot, chamomile, cajeput.

 Balsamic agents for colds, chills, congestion, etc; for example, benzoin, frankincense, Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, myrrh.

 Antiseptics for ’flu, colds, sore throat, tonsillitis, gingivitis, etc; for example, thyme, sage, eucalyptus, hyssop, pine, cajeput, tea tree, borneol.

The Digestive System

Although it is not recommended that essential oils be taken orally, they can by external application effect certain changes in the digestive processes. However, whereas herbal medicine has many remedies at its disposal for a wide variety of stomach, gall bladder and liver complaints, such as dandelion, marshmallow, chamomile and meadowsweet, much of their effectiveness is based on a combination of aromatic components, together with bitters, tannins and mucilage, which are absent in the volatile oil alone. The external application of essential oils in problems of the digestive system though effective, is consequently somewhat limited compared to the internal use of herbal remedies.

 Antispasmodics for spasm, pain, indigestion, etc; for example, chamomile, caraway, fennel, orange, peppermint, Melissa, aniseed, cinnamon.

 Carminatives and stomachics for flatulent dyspepsia, aerophagia, nausea, etc; for example, angelica, basil, fennel, chamomile, peppermint, mandarin.

 Cholagogues for increasing the flow of bile and stimulating the gall bladder; for example, caraway, lavender, peppermint and borneol.

 Hepatics for liver congestion, jaundice, ere; for example, lemon, lime, rosemary, peppermint.

 Aperitifs for loss of appetite, anorexia, etc; for example, aniseed, angelica, orange, ginger, garlic.

The Genito-urinary and Endocrine Systems

Like the digestive system, the reproductive organs can be affected by absorption via the skin into the bloodstream, as well as through hormonal changes. Some essential oils such as rose and jasmine have an affinity for the reproductive system having a general strengthening effect as well as helping to combat specific complaints like menstrual problems, genital infections and sexual difficulties. Other oils contain plant hormones which mimic the corresponding human hormones; oils such as hops, sage and fennel have been found to contain a form of oestrogen that influences the menstrual cycle, lactation and secondary sexual characteristics. Oestrogen also helps maintain a healthy circulation, good muscle and skin tone and strong bones in both men and women.

Other essential oils are known to influence the levels of hormone secretion of other glands, including the thyroid gland (which governs growth and metabolism), the adrenal medulla (which deals with stress reactions) and the adrenal cortex (which governs several processes including the production of oestrogen and androgen, the male sex hormone).

 Antispasmodics for menstrual cramp (dysmenorrhoea), labour pains, etc; for example, sweet marjoram, chamomile, clary sage, jasmine, lavender.

 Emmenagogues for scanty periods, lack of periods (amenorrhoea), etc; for example, chamomile, fennel, hyssop, juniper, sweet marjoram, peppermint.

 Uterine tonics and regulators for pregnancy, excess menstruation (menorrhagia), PMT, etc; for example, clary sage, jasmine, rose, myrrh, frankincense, Melissa.

 Antiseptic and bactericidal agents for leucorrhoea, vaginal pruritis, thrush, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, myrrh, rose, tea tree.

 Galactagogues for increasing milk flow; for example, fennel, jasmine, anise, lemongrass (sage, mint and parsley reduce it).

 Aphrodisiacs for impotence and frigidity, etc; for example, black pepper, cardamon, clary sage, neroli, jasmine, rose, sandalwood, patchouli, ylang ylang.

 Anaphrodisiacs for reducing sexual desire; for example, sweet marjoram, camphor.

 Adrenal stimulants for anxiety, stress-related conditions, etc; for example, basil, geranium, rosemary, borneol, sage, pine, savory.

With regard to the kidneys, bladder and urinary system in general, it is difficult to bring about results simply by using essential oils. According to recent research, ‘the diuretic effects of essential oils are virtually nonexistent’.11 In addition, the traditional diuretic agents such as juniper, lovage and parsley seed are considered unsuitable as essential oils for internal use due to toxicity levels and possible kidney damage; herb teas of fennel, dandelion or chamomile provide a milder alternative. Bathing and using a douche can help control urinary infections, especially when they are associated with nervous or stress-related symptoms.

 Urinary antiseptics for cystitis, urethritis, etc; for example, bergamot, chamomile, tea tree, sandalwood.

‘Lerne the hygh and mervelous vertue of herbes … use the effectes with reverence, and give thankes to the maker celestyall’; from Braunsweig’s The Vertuose Bake of Distyllacyon of the Waters of all Maner of Herbes, 1527

The Immune System

Virtually all essential oils have bactericidal properties and by promoting the production of white blood cells, they can help prevent and treat infectious illness. It is these properties that gave aromatic herbs and oils such high repute with regard to infections such as malaria and typhoid in the tropics and epidemics of plague in the Middle Ages. ‘People who use essential oils all the time … mostly have a high level of resistance to illness, catching fewer colds, etc, than average and recovering quickly if they do.’12

 Bactericidal and antiviral agents (prophylactics) for protection against colds, ’flu, etc; for example, tea tree, cajeput, niaouli, basil, lavender, eucalyptus, bergamot, camphor, clove, rosemary.

 Febrifuge agents for reducing fever and temperature, etc; for example, angelica, basil, peppermint, thyme, sage, lemon, eucalyptus, tea tree.

 Sudorifics and diaphoretics for promoting sweating, eliminating toxins, etc; for example, rosemary, thyme, hyssop, chamomile.

The Nervous System

Recent research shows that the properties of many oils correspond to the traditionally held views: chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender and sweet marjoram were found to have a sedative effect on the central nervous system; jasmine, peppermint, basil, clove and ylang ylang were found to have a stimulating effect. Neroli was found to be stimulating and lemon to be sedating, contrary to popular belief. Some oils are known to be ‘adaptogens’, that is, they have a balancing or normalizing effect on the systems of the body: geranium and rosewood were either sedative or stimulating according to each situation and individual.

Words like ‘relaxing’ and ‘uplifting’ often have more to do with odour description and emotional response rather than physiological effect – although the two are related. Consequently, oils such as bergamot, Melissa or lemon can be sedating to the nervous system, but reviving to the ‘spirit’. Conversely, oils such as jasmine, ylang ylang and neroli can be nerve stimulants yet soothing and relaxing on a more subtle emotional level.

 Sedatives for nervous tension, stress, insomnia, etc; for example, chamomile, bergamot, sandalwood, lavender, sweet marjoram, Melissa, hops, valerian, lemon.

 Stimulants for convalescence, lack of strength, nervous fatigue, etc; for example, basil, jasmine, peppermint, ylang ylang, neroli, angelica, rosemary.

 Nerve tonics (nervines) for strengthening the nervous system as a whole; for example, chamomile, clary sage, juniper, lavender, marjoram, rosemary.

The Mind

This area is perhaps the most discussed and least understood area of activity regarding essential oils. There is no doubt that throughout history aromatic oils have been used for their power to influence the emotions and states of mind: this is the basis for their employment as incense for religious and ritualistic purposes. It is already known that two olfactory nerve tracts run right into the limbic system (the part of the brain concerned with memory and emotion), which means that scents can evoke an immediate and powerful response which defies rational analysis.

Recent research at Warwick University, England, and Toho University, Japan, has aimed to put these traditionally held beliefs and applications into a scientific context. They came up with two types of reaction to odours which they called a ‘hard-wired’ response or a ‘soft-wired’ response: the first type is ingrained from before birth and is purely instinctual; the second is learned or acquired later on. The first type may be, for example, the scent of the mother’s skin or a sexual signal; the second might be the fragrance of honeysuckle, reminiscent of a childhood garden.

A discourse on the Virtues of the Rose; from Champier’s Rosa Gallica, 1514

But to what extent is the effect of a particular oil dependent upon its chemical or physiological make-up, and to what extent does it rely upon a belief or an association? In dealing with the psychological or emotional responses to the scent of a particular oil, this kind of classification becomes much more difficult: surely here it is more appropriate to consider the temperament of each individual within a given context, rather than predict a set reaction.

At the Psychology of Perfumery Conference 1991, it was generally agreed that ‘while pharmacological effects may be very similar from one person to another, psychological effects are bound to be different’.13 The effect of an odour on a human being was dependent on a variety of factors which include:

1. how the odour was applied,

2. how much was applied,

3. the circumstances in which it was applied,

4. the person to whom it was applied (age, sex, personality type),

5. what mood they were in to start with,

6. what previous associations they may have with the odour,

7. anosmia, or inability to smell (certain scents).

We must, therefore, seek odoriferous substances which present affinities with the human being we intend to treat, those which will compensate for his deficiencies and those which will make his faculties blossom. It was by searching for this remedy that we encountered the individual prescription (IP), which on all points represents the identity of the individual.14

When we begin to consider individual needs, essential oils start to demonstrate the versatility of their nature. The rose is a good example; a flower which has been associated with beauty, love, and spiritual depth in folklore and religious texts (especially Sufi) but which also has a long tradition of usage for physical conditions such as skin problems, regulating the female cycle, promoting the circulation, purifying the blood and as a heart tonic. When we smell the fragrance of the rose, it carries all these rich associations with it, affecting our mind and body simultaneously, where the effect is moulded by personal experience.

‘The general trend of modern thought is strictly dualistic; psychic and somatic happenings are treated as mutually exclusive rather than inclusive.’15 Trying to disentangle spirit from matter leads nowhere; as David Hoffman says, ‘Mind and Matter are mutually enfolded projections of a higher reality which is neither matter nor consciousness.’16

4. HOW TO USE ESSENTIAL OILS AT HOME

Essential oils can be used simply and effectively at home in a variety of ways, both for their scent and for their cosmetic and medicinal qualities. They can be used as perfumes and to revive pot pourris; they can be added to the bath and used to make individual beauty preparations. They can also be employed in the treatment of minor first-aid cases and to help prevent and relieve many common complaints such as headaches, colds, period pains and aching muscles (see Therapeutic Index). They should always be stored in a cool place in dark bottles to protect them from photo-oxidation with as little contact with air as possible, and kept out of reach of children.

Some home uses for many essential oils can be found in the main body of the book, but the following list suggests a few possible uses for individual essences and shows some of the ways in which they can be applied.

Massage

This is the method favoured by professional aromatherapists, who usually carry out a full body massage. Specific essential oils are chosen to suit the condition and temperament of the patient, and blended with a base oil, such as sweet almond oil or grapeseed oil.

The essential oil content in a blend should usually be between 1 per cent and 3 per cent depending on the type of disorder. As a general rule, physical ailments like rheumatism or indigestion demand a stronger concentration than the more emotional or nervous conditions. A rough guideline is to say that 20 drops of essential oil is equivalent to one millilitre, so to make a blend it is possible to use the following proportions:

Essential oil Base oil 20 to 60 drops 100ml 7 to 25 drops 25ml 3 to 5 drops 1 tsp

Massage is a relaxing and nourishing experience in itself, not least because of the unspoken communication based on touch, but it also ensures that the oils are effectively absorbed through the skin and into the bloodstream. For general well-being it is beneficial to practise self-massage on specific areas of the body, especially concentrating on the feet and hands. It is also useful to rub those particular parts of the body that are causing discomfort; for example peppermint (in dilution) can be rubbed on the stomach in a clockwise direction to ease indigestion; marjoram can help to relax the neck and shoulders if they are stiff.

Skin Oils and Lotions

The essential oils are prepared in much the same manner as they would be for a massage, except that the base oil should include the more nourishing oils such as jojoba, avocado or apricot kernel oil. The emphasis here is on treating the skin itself and dealing with particular problems. A gentle circular movement of the fingers is often enough for the oils to be absorbed; it is important not to drag on the skin, especially in the delicate areas of the neck and around the eyes. Rose and neroli are good for dry or mature complexions; geranium, bergamot and lemon can help combat acne and greasy skin.

A few drops of essential oil can also be mixed into a bland cream or lotion, or added to a basic face mask, which might include oatmeal, honey or clay together with the pulp of various fruits. In some conditions, such as cold sores (herpes) and athlete’s foot, it is better to use an alcohol-based lotion rather than an oil or cream. This can be made by adding 6 drops of essential oil to 5ml of isopropyl alcohol or vodka. This mixture can be further diluted in a litre of boiled and cooled water for treating open cuts or sores, such as those caused by chickenpox or genital herpes.

Hot and Cold Compresses

This is a very effective way of using essential oils to relieve pain and reduce inflammation. A hot compress can be made by filling a bowl with very hot water, then adding 4 or 5 drops of essential oil. Dip a folded piece of cotton cloth, cotton wool or a flannel into the bowl, squeeze out the excess water and place the cloth on the affected area until it has cooled to blood heat, then repeat. Hot compresses are particularly useful for backache, rheumatism and arthritis, abscesses, earache and toothache.

Cold compresses are made in a similar way, using ice cold rather than hot water. This type of compress is useful for headaches (apply to forehead or back of neck), sprains, strains and other hot, swollen conditions.

Hair Care

The hair can also be enhanced by the use of a few drops of essential oils in the final hair rinse or added straight to a mild shampoo. An alcohol-based scalp rub can also be made by adding 5ml of an essential oil to 100ml of vodka – this method can be used to condition the hair or to get rid of unwanted parasites such as lice and fleas. An excellent conditioning treatment for different types of hair can be made by adding about 3 per cent (or 60 drops) of an essential oil to a nourishing base oil such as olive oil with jojoba or sweet almond oil, massaging it into the scalp, then wrapping the hair in warm towels for an hour or two. Oils such as rosemary, West Indian bay and chamomile all help to condition and encourage healthy hair growth; lavender can be used to repel lice and fleas; bergamot and tea tree can help control dandruff.

An apothecary’s shop where medicaments are being concocted from herbs and distilled oils; from a sixteenth-century manuscript

Flower Waters

It is possible to make toilet or flower water at home by adding about 20 to 30 drops of essential oil to a 100ml bottle of spring or de-ionized water, leaving it for a few days in the dark and then filtering it using a coffee filter paper. Although essential oils do not dissolve in water they do impart their scent to it as well as their properties.

This method can be very helpful in the prevention and treatment of skin conditions such as acne, dermatitis and eczema, and to generally tone and cleanse the complexion. Almost any oil can be used, but the more traditional ones include rose, neroli, lavender and petitgrain; alternatively, blended flower waters can be made to suit specific complexions.

Baths

One of the easiest and most pleasurable ways of using essential oils is to add 5 to 10 drops of oil to the bath water when the tub is full. Aromatic bathing has traditionally been used as an enjoyable and sensual experience, especially by the Romans; but also to treat a wide range of complaints, including irritating skin conditions, muscular aches and pains, rheumatism and arthritis. An essence such as ylang ylang can be enjoyed as a euphoric aromatic experience in itself; chamomile or lavender can help to relieve stress-related complaints such as anxiety or insomnia; rosemary or pine can help soothe aching limbs. Take care to avoid those oils which may be irritating to the skin.

Vaporization

A delightful way to scent a room, free of the dust or smoke that can be caused by incense, is to use an oil burner, or aromatic diffuser. Alternatively, a few drops of oil can be placed on a light bulb ring or added to a small bowl of water placed on a radiator. Specific oils can be chosen to create different atmospheres: frankincense and cedarwood have been used traditionally in a ritual context, to create a peaceful and relaxed mood. Vaporized oils such as citronella or lemongrass also provide an excellent way of keeping insects at bay or clearing the air of unwanted smells like cigarette smoke.

At one time, the leaves of juniper and rosemary were burnt to help control epidemics and purify the air. Such oils can help keep the environment free of germs and inhibit the development of infections like the common cold or ’flu. An oil such as myrtle or eucalyptus can be used in the bedroom at night to help clear breathing difficulties or children’s coughs. A few drops may also be put on the pillow or onto a handkerchief for use throughout the day. Always ensure that the oil burner is in a safe place and out of reach of children or pets.