Encyclopedia of Essential Oils: The complete guide to the use of aromatic oils in aromatherapy, herbalism, health and well-being.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Widely used as a domestic spice. The volatile oil content provides the basis for its medicinal applications: dry irritable coughs, bronchitis and whooping cough. The seed can be used in smoking mixtures. Aniseed tea is used for infant catarrh, also flatulence, colic and griping pains, also for painful periods and to promote breast milk. In Turkey a popular alcoholic drink, raki, is made from the seed.

ACTIONS Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, expectorant, galactagogue, stimulant, stomachic.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the seeds.

CHARACTERISTICS Colourless to pale yellow liquid with a warm, spicy-sweet characteristic scent. Like star anise, it is a good masking agent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Trans-anethole (75–90 per cent).

SAFETY DATA Its major component, anethole, is known to cause dermatitis in some individuals – avoid in allergic and inflammatory skin conditions. In large doses it is narcotic and slows down the circulation; can lead to cerebral disorders. Use in moderation only.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE See star anise.

OTHER USES By the pharmaceutical industry in cough mixtures and lozenges and to mask undesirable flavours in drugs. Also used in dentifrices and as a fragrance component in soaps, toothpaste, detergents, cosmetics and perfumes, mostly of the industrial type. Employed in all major food categories.

ARNICA

Arnica montana

FAMILY Asteraceae (Compositae)

SYNONYMS A. fulgens, A. sororia, leopard’s bane, wolf’s bane.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A perennial alpine herb with a creeping underground stem, giving rise to a rosette of pale oval leaves. The flowering erect stem is up to 60 cms high, bearing a single, bright yellow, daisy-like flower. The whole plant is very difficult to cultivate.

DISTRIBUTION Native to northern and central Europe; also found growing wild in the USSR, Scandinavia and northern India. The oil is produced mainly in France, Belgium and Germany.

OTHER SPECIES A related plant, A. cordifolia, and other species of arnica are used in America, where it is known as ‘mountain tobacco’.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION This herb stimulates the peripheral blood supply when applied externally, and is considered one of the best remedies for bruises and sprains. It helps relieve rheumatic pain and other painful or inflammatory skin conditions, so long as the skin is not broken! It is never used internally due to toxicity levels.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, stimulant, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation of 1. flowers, and 2. root. The yield of essential oil is very small. An absolute, tincture and resinoid are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A yellowy-orange liquid with a greenish-blue hint and a strong bitter-spicy scent reminiscent of radish. 2. Dark yellow or butter-brown oil more viscous than the flower oil, with a strong bitter scent.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Thymohydroquinone dimethyl ether (80 per cent approx.), isobutyric ester of phlorol (20 per cent approx.) and other minor traces.

SAFETY DATA The essential oil is highly toxic and should never be used internally or on broken skin. However, the tincture or arnica ointment are valuable additions to the home medicine cabinet.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USES The tincture is mainly employed in pharmaceutical skin products. The oil from the flowers finds occasional use in herbaceous-type perfumes. It is also used to flavour certain liqueurs.

ASAFETIDA

Ferula asa-foetida

FAMILY Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)

SYNONYMS Asafoetida, gum asafetida, devil’s dung, food of the gods, giant fennel.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large branching perennial herb up to 3 metres high, with a thick fleshy root system and pale yellow-green flowers.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Afghanistan, Iran and other regions of south west Asia.

OTHER SPECIES There are several other species of Ferula which yield the oleoresin known as ‘asafetida’, e.g. Tibetan asafetida, which is also used to a lesser extent in commerce.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION In Chinese medicine it has been used since the seventh century as a nerve stimulant in treating neurasthenia. It is also widely used in traditional Indian medicine, where it is believed to stimulate the brain. In general, it has the reputation for treating various ailments including asthma, bronchitis, convulsions, coughs, constipation, flatulence and hysteria. The foliage of the plant is used as a local vegetable. It is current in the British Herbal Pharmacopoeia as a specific for intestinal flatulent colic.

ACTIONS Antispasmodic, carminative, expectorant, hypotensive, stimulant. Animals are repelled by its odour.

EXTRACTION The oleoresin is obtained by making incisions into the root and above ground parts of the plant. The milky juice is left to leak out and harden into dark reddish lumps, before being scraped off and collected. The essential oil is then obtained from the resin by steam distillation. An absolute, resinoid and tincture are also produced.

CHARACTERISTICS A yellowy-orange oil with a bitter acrid taste and a strong, tenacious odour resembling garlic. However, beneath this odour there is a sweet, balsamic note.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Disulphides, notably 2-butyl propenyl disulphide with monoterpenes, free ferulic acid, valeric, traces of vanillin, among others.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates the oil to be relatively non-toxic and non-irritant. However, it has the reputation for being the most adulterated ‘drug’ on the market. Before being sold, the oleoresin is often mixed with red clay or similar substitutes.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Respiratory System: ‘There is evidence that the volatile oil is expelled through the lungs, therefore it is excellent for asthma, bronchitis, whooping cough etc.’3

Nervous system: Fatigue, nervous exhaustion and stress-related conditions.

OTHER USES Now rarely used in pharmaceutical preparations; formerly used as a local stimulant for the mucous membranes. Occasionally used as a fixative and fragrance component in perfumes, especially rose bases and heavy oriental types. Employed in a wide variety of food categories, mainly condiments and sauces.

B

BALSAM, CANADIAN

Abies balsamea

FAMILY Pinaceae

SYNONYMS A. balsamifera, Pinus balsamea, balsam fir, balsam tree, American silver fir, balm of Gilead fir, Canada turpentine (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful evergreen tree up to 20 metres high, with a tapering trunk and numerous branches giving the tree an overall shape of a perfect cone. It forms blisters of oleoresin (the so-called ‘balsam’) on the trunk and branches, produced from special vesicles beneath the bark. The tree does not produce a ‘true’ balsam, since it does not contain benzoic or cinnamic acid in its esters; it is really an oleoresin, being a mixture of resin and essential oil.

DISTRIBUTION Native to North America, particularly Quebec, Nova Scotia and Maine.

OTHER SPECIES The hemlock spruce (Tsuga canadensis) also yields an exudation sold under the name of ‘Canada balsam’. There are also many other species of fir which produce oils from their needles – see entry on silver fir and Botanical Classification section. NB: Not to be confused with the genuine balsam of Gilead (Commiphora opabalsamum), of ancient repute.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The oleoresin is used extensively by the American Indians for ritual purposes and as an external treatment for burns, sores, cuts and to relieve heart and chest pains. It is also used internally for coughs.

ACTIONS Antiseptic (genito-urinary, pulmonary), antitussive, astringent, cicatrisant, diuretic, expectorant, purgative, regulatory, sedative (nerve), tonic, vulnerary.

EXTRACTION 1. The oleoresin is collected by punturing vesicles in the bark. 2. An essential oil is produced by steam distillation from the oleoresin, known as Canada balsam or Canada turpentine. (An essential oil is also produced by steam distillation from the leaf or needles, known as fir needle oil.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The oleoresin is a thick pale yellow or green honeylike mass which dries to crystal clear varnish, with a fresh sweet balsamic, almost fruity odour. 2. A colourless mobile liquid with a sweet, soft-balsamic, pinelike scent. It blends well with pine, cedarwood, cypress, sandalwood, juniper, benzoin and other balsams.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Consists almost entirely of monoterpenes, pinene, phellandrene, esters and alcohols.

SAFETY DATA Generally non-toxic, non-irritant, non-sensitizing. ‘In large doses it is purgative and may cause nausea.’4

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Burns, cuts, haemorrhoids, wounds.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, catarrh, chronic coughs, sore throat.

Genito-Urinary System: Cystitis, genito-urinary infections.

Nervous System: Depression, nervous tension, stress-related conditions – described as ‘appeasing, sedative, elevating, grounding, opening’.5

OTHER USES The oil from the oleoresin is used in certain ointments and creams as an antiseptic and treatment for haemorrhoids. Used in dentistry as an ingredient in root canal sealers. Also used as a fixative or fragrance component in soaps, detergents, cosmetics and perfurmes. There is some low-level use in food products, alcoholic and soft drinks. The oleoresin is used as a medium in microscopy and as a cement in glassware.

BALSAM, COPAIBA

Copaifera officinalis

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Copahu balsam, copaiba, copaiva, Jesuit’s balsam, Maracaibo balsam, para balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Wild-growing tropical tree up to 18 metres high, with thick foliage and many branches. The natural oleoresin occurs as a physiological product from various Copaifera species. Not a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to north east and central South America. Mainly produced in Brazil; also Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and Colombia.

OTHER SPECIES Several Copaifera speices yield an oleoresin: the Venezuelan type ‘Maracaibo balsam’ has a low oil content, the Brazilian type ‘para balsam’ has a high oil content. See also Botanical Classification section.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION Used for centuries in Europe in the treatment of chronic cystitis and bronchitis; also for treating piles, chronic diarrhoea and intestinal problems.

ACTIONS Batericidal, balsamic, disinfectant, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION 1. The crude balsam is collected by drilling holes into the tree trunks; it is one of the most plentiful naturally occurring perfume materials. 2. An essential oil is obtained by dry distillation from the crude balsam. It is mainly the ‘para balsams’ with a high oil content (60–80 per cent), which are used for distillation.

CHARACTERISTICS 1. The crude balsam is a viscous, yellowy-brown or greenish-grey liquid which hardens upon exposure to air with a mild, woody, slightly spicy odour. It blends well with styrax, amyris, lavandin, cedarwood, lavender, oakmoss, woods and spices. 2. The oil is a pale yellow or greenish mobile liquid with a mild, sweet, balsamic-peppery odour. It blends well with cananga, ylang ylang, vanilla, jasmine, violet and other florals.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly caryophyllene.

SAFETY DATA Relatively non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization. Large doses cause vomiting and diarrhoea.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: Intestinal infections, piles.

Respiratory System: Bronchitis, chills, colds, coughs, etc.

Genito-Rinary System: Cystitis.

Nervous System: Stress-related conditons.

OTHER USES The oleoresin is used in pharmaceutical products especially cough medicines and iuretics. The oil and crude balsam are extensively used as a fixative and fragrance component in all types of perfumes, soaps, cosmetics and detergents. The crude is also used in porcelain painting.

BALSAM, PERU

Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Toluifera pereira, Myrosperum pereira, Myroxylon pereirae, Peruvian balsam, Indian balsam, black balsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A large tropical tree up to 25 metres high, with a straight smooth trunk, beautiful foliage and very fragrant flowers. Every part of the tree contains a reinous juice, including the fibrous fruit. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained from the exposed lacerated wood, after strips of the bark have been removed. It is a ‘true’ balsam, which is collected in the form of a dark brown or amber semi-solid mass.

DISTRIBUTION Native to Central America; production mainly takes place in San Salvador.

OTHER SPECIES Myroxylon frutescens and guina-guina are close relations, as well as Tolu balsam.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION It stimulates the heart, increases blood pressure, and lessens mucous secretions; useful for respiratory disorders such as asthma, chronic coughs and bronchitis. Traditionally employed for rheumatic pain and skin problems including scabies, nappy rash, bedsores, prurigo, eczema, sore nipples and wounds; it also destroys the itch acarus and its eggs.

ACTIONS Anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, parasiticide, stimulant; promotes the growth of epithelial cells.

EXTRACTION A resin-free essential oil is produced from the crude balsam by high vacuum dry distillation. (A wood oil is also produced by steam distillation from the wood chippings, which is considered of inferior quality. A white balsam called ‘myroxocarpin’ is made from the fruit, and an extract called ‘balsamito’ from the young fruit.)

CHARACTERISTICS The oil is a pale amber or brown viscous liquid with a rich, sweet, balsamic, ‘vanilla-like’ scent. It blends well with ylang ylang, patchouli, petitgrain, sandalwood, rose, spices, floral and oriental bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Benzoic and cinnamic acid esters such as benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamate and cinnamyl cinnamate as well as other traces. The crude balsam contains approximately 50–64 per cent oil, referred to as ‘cinnamein’, and 20–28 per cent resin.

SAFETY DATA Non-toxic, non-irritant; however the balsam (not the oil) is a common contact allergen, which may cause dermatitis. Those who have this sensitivity may also react to benzoin resinoid; this is called ‘cross-sensitization’. The commercial oil is often a water-white liquid, being diluted with a solvent such as benzyl alcohol.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE

Skin Care: Dry and chapped skin, eczema, rashes, sores and wounds.

Circulation, Muscles And Joints: Low blood pressure, rheumatism.

Respiratory System: Asthma, bronchitis, coughs.

Immune System: Colds.

Nervous System: Nervous tension, stress; like other balsams it has a warming, opening, comforting quality.

OTHER USES The balsam is extensively used in tropical medicinal preparations, and to some extent in pharmaceutical products, for example, cough syrup. Used as a fixative and fragrance component in soaps, detergents, creams, lotions and perfumes; the oil is often used in perfumery since this avoids any resin deposits or discolouration; used in most food categories, including alcoholic and soft drinks.

BALSAM, TOLU

Myroxylon balsamum var. balsamum

FAMILY Fabaceae (Leguminosae)

SYNONYMS Toluifera balsamum, Balsamum tolutanum, B. americanum, Myrospermum toluiferum, Thomas balsam, resin Tolu, opobalsam.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tall, graceful tropical tree, similar in appearance to the Peru balsam tree. The balsam is a pathological product, obtained by making V-shaped incisions into the bark and sap wood, often after the trunk has been beaten and scorched. It is a ‘true’ balsam.

DISTRIBUTION Native to South America, mainly Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba; also cultivated in the West Indies.

OTHER SPECIES There are many types of South American balsam-yielding trees, such as the Peru balsam – see entry.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION The balsam works primarily on the respiratory mucous membranes, and is good for chronic catarrh and non-inflammatory chest complaints, laryngitis and croup. It is still used as a flavour and mild expectorant in cough syrups and lozenges. As an ingredient in compound benzoin tincture and similar formulations, it is helpful in the treatment of cracked nipples, lips, cuts, bedsores, etc.

ACTIONS Antitussive, antiseptic, balsamic, expectorant, stimulant.

EXTRACTION The crude balsam is collected from the trees. It appears first in liquid form, then hardens and solidifies into an orange-brown brittle mass. An ‘essential oil’ is obtained from the crude by 1. steam distillation, or 2. dry distillation. (A resinoid and absolute are also produced for use primarily as fixatives.)

CHARACTERISTICS 1. A pale yellow-brown liquid with a sweet-floral scent and peppery undertone. 2. An amber-coloured liquid with a rich balsamic-floral scent, which slowly solidfies on cooling into a crystalline mass. Tolu balsam blends well with mimosa, ylang ylang, sandalwood, labdanum, neroli, patchouli, cedarwood and oriental, spicy and floral bases.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS The balsam contains approx. 80 per cent resin, 20 per cent oil, with cinnamic and benzoic acids, small amounts of terpenes, and traces of eugenol and vanillin.

SAFETY DATA Available information indicates it to be non-toxic, non-irritant, possible sensitization, see Peru Balsam.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE SKIN CARE: Dry, chapped and cracked skin, eczema, rashes, scabies, sores, wounds. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Bronchitis, catarrh, coughs, croup, laryngitis. ‘It may be used as an inhalant by putting about a teaspoon into a steam bath.’6

OTHER USES As a fixative and fragrance component in colognes, cosmetics and perfumes (especially the dry distilled type). Some use in pharmaceutical preparations, e.g. cough syrups. Low levels used in many major food products, especially baked goods.

BASIL, EXOTIC

Ocimum basilicum

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNONYMS Sweet basil, Comoran basil (oil), Reunion basil (oil).

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Botanically classified as identical from the French basil, though it is a larger plant with a harsher odour and different constituents.

DISTRIBUTION Mainly produced in the Comoro Islands, but it is also processed in Madagascar.

OTHER SPECIES The exotic basil is a dramatically different chemotype to the French basil and probably a seperate sub-species (possibly a form of O. canum), although this has not been specified. Essential oils are also produced in Morocco, Egypt, South Africa, Brazil and Indonesia from various chemotypes of the East Indian or shrubby basil (O. gratissimum), which contain a high percentage of either thymol or eugenol. The hairy or hoary basil (O. canum), originating in East Africa and found in India and South America, is also used to extract oils rich in either methyl cinnamate or camphor, which are produced in West and East Africa, India, the West Indies and Indonesia. See also entry on French basil.

HERBAL/FOLK TRADITION See French Basil.

ACTIONS See Basil French.

EXTRACTION Essential oil by steam distillation from the leaves and flowering tops.

CHARACTERISTICS The Exotic type oil is yellow or pale green, with a slightly coarse sweet-herbaceous odour with a camphoraceous tinge. It’s scent does not compare with the ‘true’ sweet basil oil.

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS Mainly methyl chavicol (70–88 per cent), with small amounts of linalol, cineol, camphor, eugenol, limonene and citronellol.

SAFETY DATA Methyl chavicol is moderately toxic and irritating to the skin: ‘the methyl chavicol content of Comoran basil is sufficient reason to discard it for therapeutic usage in favour of the French type.’6 There has also been some recent concern over the possible carcinogenic effects of methyl chavicol. Basil should be avoided during pregnancy.

AROMATHERAPY/HOME USE None.

OTHER USE The oil is employed in high class fragrances, soaps and dental products; used extensively in major food categories especially meat products and savories.

BASIL, FRENCH

Ocimum basilicum

FAMILY Lamiaceae (Labiatae)

SYNOYNMS Common basil, joy-of-the-mountain, ‘true’ sweet basil, European basil.

French Basil

GENERAL DESCRIPTION A tender annual herb, with very dark green, ovate leaves, greyish-green beneath, an erect square stem up to 60 cms high, bearing whorls of two-lipped greenish or pinky-white flowers. The whole plant has a powerful aromatic scent.

DISTRIBUTION Native to tropical Asia and Africa, it is now widely cultivated throughout Europe, the Mediterranean region, the Pacific Islands, North and South America. The European, French or ‘true’ sweet basil oil is produced in France, Italy, Egypt, Bulgaria, Hungary and the USA.

OTHER SPECIES There are many varieties of basil occurring all over the world, used both for their culinary and medicinal applications, such as bush basil (O. minimum), holy basil (O. sanctum), both from India, camphor basil (O. kilimanjaricum) from East Africa (also grown in India), and the fever plant (O. viride) from West Africa. However, there are two principal chemotypes most commonly used for the extraction of essential oil: the so-called ‘French basil’ and the ‘exotic basil’ – see separate entry.