A Brief History of Forestry.

The communal forests are under government supervision; they are usually worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to supply the needs of the community. Only when the area is more than sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their parish; on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the government, if this is found desirable. As regards private property there seems to be little or no supervision, although the law of 1863 had declared Kulturplight and Kulturtvank, i.e., the duty of reforesting, but it had not defined that duty, and the law remained a dead letter.

In 1874, a special commission was charged to consider the forest policy which the public welfare required. The commission reported in 1879 with propositions, which were submitted to the officials of the department and the district. A new proposition was worked out and submitted in 1882, but it was pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administration brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding the export from Nordland, Tromsoe and Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces.

Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling municipalities to protect themselves against destruction of forests needed for their protective function. This gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter limit for felling, or reforestation of clearings. But the costs of such restriction must be borne by the municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection, the other half being paid by the State. The procedure to determine the protective quality of forests and the financial difficulty have left the law unused.

In 1878, however, a committee of private owners formed itself, to fix the sand dunes, which with the State subventions started work the following year.

Many of the State forests are so burdened with rights of user, which were granted to help in developing the country, that the financial results of the forest administration and the conditions of the State property are most unsatisfactory, and the application of silviculture greatly circumscribed.

The silvicultural system applied is most generally the rough selection forest or an approach to group system, relying upon voluntary reproduction entirely. Management is much hampered by rights of user to certain dimensions, and in the more distant districts by the difficulty of disposing of any but the best sizes. An orderly organization is still almost unknown. The stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the axe is still mainly used.

Higher forest schools there are none, but three schools for the lower grades had existed for some time, the first having been established in 1875 at Kongsberg; one of them was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is also taught at two farm schools.

Until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in Germany, or in the Swedish Forest Institute at Stockholm; but in 1879, a chair of forestry was instituted in the Agricultural college at Kristiania.

In 1881, the first forestry association was formed, which by 1898 had over 500 members, and then was re-organized with a special view to elevate private forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members, and employs a forester paid by the State, to give professional advice, and works with State aid. It has set out over 50 million trees besides sowing 8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal Tidskrift for Skogsbruk, and a Yearbook. There is also another journal, Forstligt Tidskrift, and a professional Society of Foresters.

Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country, but the subject is now being brought even into the primary schools, and the efforts to improve conditions are widespread.

DENMARK

Forestry in Denmark is of interest especially on account of the intensive methods developed on small areas, and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes, moors and heaths.

Greatly curtailed in area when, as a result of the war of 1864, Prussia detached the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, Denmark now has an area of 15,360 square miles with 2.5 million people (or 163 to the square mile). It is largely a farming country, 80 per cent. being productive, only 6.3 per cent. of it, or less than 600,000 acres being under forest, and this also mostly on soil capable of farm use; hence an import of over 7 million dollars worth of wood material is required.

In addition, there are about 75,000 acres of heaths and other wastes in process of reforestation. Especially on the island of Själland, on which the capital Copenhagen, is situated, the forest area is now increasing by planting. The balance, or nearly 20 per cent. of the land area, consists of heaths, moors, peatbogs and sands.

Half the forest area is located on the islands, and as these represent about one-third of the total area, they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula of Jütland. This latter along the north and west coast for 200 miles represents a large sandbank with extensive sand dunes, shifting sands, heaths and moors, a desolate almost uninhabited country of sterile downs, called Klitten, the recovery of which has been in progress for a hundred years. According to some, this once bore a coniferous forest, more likely it was never forested.

While originally beech was and is still the predominant timber (60 %) with considerable additions of oak (7 %) and other hardwoods, a conifer forest of spruce and pine, covering more than 20 % of the forest area, has been established by planting. This planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sandwastes, and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths and moors or peat bogs, especially in the northern Limfjord district, which occupy one-sixth of the unproductive area.

As was natural, the forest stocking on good farm land had to yield early to plow and pasture. Attempts at conservative use of the forest area date back to 1557 when Christian III issued a forest ordinance directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements at a cheap rate, but not to permit cutting for sale or export, and reserving to himself all returns from such sales. There were also regulations for the pasture, especially as to goats, and for the use of the mast, which then formed more than one-quarter of the income from the royal forests.

In the 18th century the need of forest management was recognized, and in 1762 the two eminent German foresters, von Langen and von Zanthier (see p. 88) were invited to visit Denmark and Norway (see above) with a view of organizing such management. In 1760, eight young Danes were sent to von Langen in Wernigerode to study his methods for three years, and these with the two German foresters returned in 1762, and under the direction of von Langen organized the Seeland forest areas and started the first plantations of conifers, which are now the pride of Danish foresters.

In 1781, the State forests were altogether placed under an organized administration.

By the beginning of the 19th century the reduction of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that, in 1805, a law was enacted providing that the then existing forest area containing beech and oak should be maintained as such forever, or at least that for any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to forest. This law was perhaps the result of a journey in 1802, to Germany made by two leading officials of the forest department, German influence through Cotta and Hartig being at this time visible everywhere.

Other restrictions in the disposal of peasants’ farms or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large estates (otherwise than by renting to farmers), were also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant class. It was at this time that the accumulative taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion in Great Britain, was used effectively to break up the aggregation of landed property and changed the country from one of baronial estates to small farmer’s holdings. In this reform movement the name of Count Reventlow, Chief of the State forest department, appears as the leading spirit.

The forest area, which until 1820 was on the decrease, has since that time increased steadily, and is especially now increasing through reforestation of waste lands.

At present, most intensive forest management is practised in the State forest as well as in the communal and private forest areas, which latter as stated, are largely in farmers’ wood lots since the law forbids the union of small farms into large estates. There is little communal property, and large private estates are also rare. The State owns about 24 % of the forest area or 142,000 acres, of which one third is nonproductive or otherwise occupied, and one third consists of coniferous plantations. Excepting in the beech forest, most of the timber is of the younger age classes, below 60 to 80 years, and it is anticipated that the cut will have to be reduced, and the import of wood and woodenware increased.

Artificial reproduction is the most general silvicultural practice except in the beech forest which is reproduced naturally after preparation of the soil and sowing acorns for admixture at the same time, spending altogether $12 to $15 per acre in this preparation. Since 1880, thinnings have been based on the idea of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the French fashion; they are begun in the twentieth to thirtieth year and are repeated every three years, aided by pruning. Then in each subsequent decade the return occurs in as many years as the decade has tens. Especially in the direction of thinnings, the German practice and even theory is outdone, the thinnings being made severer and recurring more frequently.

More than a hundred years ago the State began the reclamation work of the dunes and heaths, but it progressed more actively only since the sixties of last century as a result of legislation had in 1857. In 1867, a special Dune Department was instituted, and through the effort of a State engineer, Capt. Dalgas, an association was formed for the reclamation of heaths and moors. A small subvention of $600 started the work of the association, in its useful campaign under the advice of Staats planteur (State forest planter) Jensen Tusch. The State subvention now amounts to about forty thousand dollars annually, and the success of the association has been such that it has become almost a fad for large land owners and others to buy up these waste lands and have them planted through the agents of the Heath Association. The planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost of $10 to $12 per acre; 60 to 80 year old stands of earlier plantings testifying to the possible results.

In the last 40 years nearly 200,000 acres of heath have been planted, of which over one-half are to the credit of the association.

For the education of the higher grade foresters a department of forestry (now with two professors) was instituted in the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural High School at Copenhagen in 1869, with a course of five years including one and a half year of practical work. This education is given free of charge.

The Heath Association educates its own officers, including in their subjects the management of meadows and peatbogs.

A Forestry Association, composed one-half of forest owners, with its organ Tidskrift for Skovvaesen, in existence since 1888, and a valuable book literature, in which the problems of the heath are especially fully and authoritatively treated, places Denmark in the foremost rank in the forestry world in these particulars.

Among the prominent contributors are to be mentioned, besides Reventlow and Dalgas, P. E. Müller, well known by his discussions of the problems of moor soils. From 1876 to 1891, he issued a magazine, in which Oppermann contributed a history of Danish forestry. The latter author also, in co-operation with Hauch, published in 1900 a Hand-book of Forestry.

THE MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS

Geographically, and to some extent climatically, the three peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea, the Iberian, Italian, and the Balkan, are situated alike. Their people, if not in race, are in temper and characteristics, and in their political economy more or less alike. They represent the oldest civilization in Europe, and in their long history have been frequently in collision with each other. Their forests, through centuries of abuse, are wherever accessible, in poorest condition. Long-continued political disturbances, which have prevented peaceful development, and poverty, have been the greatest hindrances to economic reforms like the recuperation of forests, which require sacrifices. Ancient rights of user, and the necessity of politicians to respect them are also responsible for the fact that, while praiseworthy attempts in legislation have been made, execution has been usually lagging behind.

The accessibility to sea, permitting readily importation, the temperate climate, the simple life and abstemiousness of the people, and the lack of industrial development have made the deficiency of wood material less felt than it would otherwise be, but the detrimental influence of forest destruction is being repeatedly experienced in floods and drouths.

There is probably no more potent cause of forest devastation in all this section of the world than the pasturing of the woods, especially with sheep and goats.

While Italy is now a united country, and only two peoples, Spain and Portugal, occupy the Iberian peninsula, the Balkan peninsula is occupied by eight separate peoples, if we include all the country south of the Danube River and East of the Carpathian Mountains.

TURKISH AND SLAVISH TERRITORIES

The Turks for centuries warred with, had under vassalage or otherwise controlled, and misruled all the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia and Greece – a territory of around 170,000 square miles and 16,000,000 people – until, by the Congress of Berlin (1878), ending the Russo-Turkish war, these States were recognized as independent kingdoms, namely Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Roumania, while Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under Austrian administration (see page 155 and 166).

With the exception of Roumania, these people are still in the lower stages of civilization, the countries undeveloped, the forest still serves largely for the mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per cent. of the country being forest covered, mostly with deciduous trees, oak, beech and walnut, etc.

Roumania alone has systematically taken advantage of her freedom from Turkish rule in developing a modern civilization, and can also boast the beginning of a forestry system.

Roumelia, comprising Macedonia, Albania and Thrace, the Turkish possessions in Europe, with 67,000 square miles and 5,000,000 people, contain large areas of untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres in Macedonia alone10) with valuable oak and walnut, which have remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of developing them under Turkish rule. Where accessible, the forest is maltreated or destroyed.

Bulgaria, to which, in 1885, East Roumelia was attached, represents now 38,000 square miles and over 4,000,000 people, independent under a German prince as king since 1879. The forest area11 of 7.5 million acres (30 per cent. of the land area), mostly deciduous (oak, beech, walnut, etc.), and largely confined to the mountains, is one-half in communal ownership, one-sixth in private hands, mostly small woodlots, and one-third State property; but ownership rights are still much in doubt, and until 1869 the State forests were freely open to the use of all, when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of different communities was attempted. Since within 10 years such rights of user establish ownership, endless litigation has resulted, until in 1883 a law was enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user, substituting money payment (10 per cent. of value), and another restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber, walnut, may be cut. Changes in detail were made in 1897, but political exigencies, absence of an adequate organization, and other undeveloped conditions have largely prevented enforcement of these laws, and rough exploitation continues in spite of the nominal State control.

Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural districts to the wooded mountains, a large import was necessary, but lately export almost equals the import, and indeed the export of walnut has increased fourteenfold in a few years. The forest administration is vested in a bureau under the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an inspector general, and two assistant chiefs. When it is stated that in 1905 the entire budget for forestry was $150,000, the inefficiency of the service is apparent.

Servia, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and 2,000,000 people, has over 42 per cent. (five million acres – according to others only 32 %) still in untouched forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the forest being mainly used for hograising. Over 36 % is State forest, over 43 % communal and institutional forest, leaving about 20 % in private hands; but, just as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of forest area, lack of transportation and systematic development – a large part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importation, which amounts to near one million dollars. Curiously enough, by the law of 1891 only the wood cut from State and church forests could be exported free of duty. This export duty was abolished in 1904, and the first attempt was made by the Minister of Agriculture to bring order into the forest administration by importing German foresters.

The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions and changes, placed private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands, or on bogsoils under government surveillance, and relieved plantations made under direction of the government of taxes for 10 years.

Roumania,12 with 50,000 square miles and nearly 6,000,000 people, under the capable administration of a Hohenzollern prince, King Charles, was in Roman times as Dacia felix one of the most prosperous provinces, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other half in the rich alluvial valley of the Danube, now largely deforested. The hill and mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the Turkish markets, until now not quite 17 per cent. (according to others 18 or 20 per cent.) of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user, which made commons of the woods, have naturally led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts. In 1847, the National Assembly attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user, but with little effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less than 5 million acres (according to others 6.7 million acres), of which two-fifths is in private hands, two-fifths State property and Royal forest (formerly, until 1863, in the hands of the monks), the small balance belonging to communities and institutes. In the higher mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest; but broadleaf forest, especially oak and beech is the prevailing type occupying the middle altitudes and the hill country. The private forest of small owners is being rapidly depleted, only the State forest and that of large proprietors being in good condition.

In 1863, when the cloister property was secularized and taken over by the state, the rights of user in this property were suspended, and sales at auction to contractors were inaugurated, under condition that a certain number of seed trees per acre be left. There was little enforcement of this rule.

The first comprehensive law organizing the State property and inaugurating a protective policy was enacted in 1881. This law recognized State, Royal and Communal property as of public concern, and also placed such private property under supervision as was situated on steep slopes, near watercourses, and near the boundaries (of strategic importance). These areas, coming under the protective policy, comprise 84 per cent. of the whole forest area. They were not to be cleared except by special permit, and not to be exploited except under specially approved working plans.

In 1885, three French foresters were called in to organize a State forest department and to inaugurate the making of working plans. The personnel (25 inspectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient, and wood prices low (the income from state property being not over $400,000), the progress of the work was slow. Although, in 1894, the income had doubled, the administrative forces had not been enlarged to any great extent (137 foresters of various grades), and by that time only 150,000 acres had been brought under working plans. By 1900, about 200,000 acres of State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some fashion. Lack of means of transportation, however, prevents a really well regulated management. Altogether only 65 per cent. of the State property is accessible so that it can be worked, and the working plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees.

In 1889, a Forestry Association (Progressul Silvic) was formed, which with its organ, Revista pâdurilor, pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an energetic Minister of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000 for foresters’ dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact with their charges, a planting fund of $100,000, later increased to $140,000 per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclamation of sand dunes was begun. A forest improvement fund was inaugurated in 1892 by setting aside 2 per cent. of the gross forest yield. But, in the political struggles, Carp’s party was displaced, and, depression in agricultural prosperity causing financial distress, an era of increased exploitation followed, so that the export of forest products, largely cooperage, (mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been declining to less than half, rose again to about four million dollars annually. The financial embarrassment of the State led even to a proposition to sell State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose were consummated, relief came and the danger was averted.

The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding about $1,000,000, the administration costing (in 1903) $240,000, leaving a net yield of 30 cents per acre. In 1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted of a Forest Director with 156 foresters academically educated (mostly in France, and since 1892 in the Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2,500 underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of sand dunes, one-half belonging to the State, about 18,000 acres have been recovered by planting Black Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have been reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries furnish the material. In spite of all these efforts, excessive pasturing, although forbidden in the State forest, and fires continue to devastate the property.

Private forestry is, of course, much less developed; yet some large properties (Princess Schoenburg, with 20,000 acres) are under efficient German forest management. Here, money is spent on developing means of transportation, and a better revenue is secured than in State forests.

GREECE

Dr. Chloros, Waldverhältnisse Griechenlands. Thesis for the Doctorate at Munich. 1884. 45 pp.

Anderlind, Mittheilungen über die Waldverhältnisse Griechenlands. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. 1884.

The history of the country has been so unfortunate, and political conditions so unsettled that only lately efforts at improvement in economic conditions could hope to receive attention. For centuries after Greece had become a Roman province (146 B.C.), it changed rulers, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians following each other, until, between 1460 and 1473, it came under the Turkish yoke. As a result of an insurrection started in 1821, freedom, but no settled order as yet, was attained in 1829 through the assistance of Great Britain, France and Russia, and the elected kings, Otho (of Bavaria), Alfred (of England) and George (of Denmark) successively tried to secure social order and efficient constitutional government.