A Brief History of Forestry.

Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial.

The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements), but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to about 12 million acres (35 %), leaving 65 % of the productive forest area to private ownership.

This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts, the districts being aggregated into 8 inspections, and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained.

Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management.

At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say $600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut.

Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 25 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices, more intensive management has become practicable.

When the market is good, a clearing system with 100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting.

This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms. These form an interesting part of the State property, some 900 small farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation. They reverted to the State and are rented for terms of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since 1863, at first met with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department. At present the department manages many of these woodlots directly, as well as those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments.

Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area.

The State has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation.

The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants’ hands, although the nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future, furnishing still four-fifths of the large export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.

Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use of private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced.

A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or “providing otherwise for regeneration,” if more than 12 acres are cut at one time.

The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised, was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries, or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also on the statutes.

Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891, were promptly rejected by the parliament.

Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result of v. Berg’s visit, and re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for the two years’ course. It has had a precarious existence, being left sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim.

Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two years’ course.

In addition there are two instructors provided by the government, wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms.

The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877. It supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation.

A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence.

It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and Finland combined, which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of which he considers one-half available for export.

It is impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland, together the largest wood producers in Europe, will take in the future world commerce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the machinery is already half started, will become generally adopted. At present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.

THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES

In the English language the Report on Forestry in Sweden, by Gen. C. C. Andrews, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35 pp., gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes.

A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be obtained from The Wood Industries of Sweden, published by TIMBER TRADES JOURNAL of London in 1896.

La Suède, son Peuple et son industrie, by G. Sundbarg, 1900, 2 vols., contains several pertinent chapters. It is an official work, very complete, and was translated into English in 1904.

The Economic History of the Swedish Forest, by Gunnar Schotte, 1905. 32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association, gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry movement.

Norway. Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900, contains a chapter on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with a map of forest distribution.

Skogsvaesenets Historie ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik, 1909, is an official publication of the Norwegian Forest administration, giving a full account of the development during the 50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier history.

Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization sociale, by J. Carlsen, H. Olric and C. N. Starcke, 1900, 714 pp.

Denmark, its history and topography, etc., by H. Weitemeyer, 1891.

Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie, by O. Lütken, 1900, was not accessible to the writer.

Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French forestry journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt für das gesammte Forstwesen, 1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III, p. 292) and another (briefed in same Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45) gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.

Under the name of Scandinavian States we may comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which were settled by the same group of German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century; and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy.

In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret, “the Semiramis of the North.” After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I.

Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from its Council) were in common, all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).

Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after his death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849.

SWEDEN

This country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters, because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon which other European nations so much rely.

Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago.

The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation, expanding frequently into lakes (sjö) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area, with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise occupied.

Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter.

Of the three main divisions of the country, the southern, Götaland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.

In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper, the forest region begins, with pine and spruce, pure or in mixture, covering the granite hills and plateau; birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood and aspen being found in the river valleys; but the third division, Norrland, is the forest region of commercial importance, the seat of the extensive export trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country, with hardly more than 3 people to the square mile, in the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population. Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White Birch intermixed. Towards the northern boundary the pine increases, in more and more open stands as one goes northward into the drier climate. An open stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition to the treeless tundra.

A treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern frontier, fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch in natural coppice, a result of repeated fires. The northeastern part is a level coast plain, but the climate is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also is short and of inferior quality.

Large areas of swampland are found in nearly all parts, recoverable for farm or forest use, and mismanaged and devastated forest areas are found all over the country.

The forest, nearly 10 acres per capita, on account of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many rivers, plays an important rôle in the economy of Sweden, not only because it covers such a large area and favorable composition (80 % coniferous), but because it has long been a prominent source of income. Especially after the abolition of the English import duties, in 1866, and of the Swedish export duties which had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid increase in wood exports take place, until in 1900, it amounted to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 million for woodenware), being the leading export article and representing over one-half of all exports.

In addition to this export which may represent at least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150 million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth, much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zone where the growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According to others, the cut remains below the increment by about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste of sometimes 40 % is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in transport.

1. Property Conditions

It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all uncultivated lands the property of the Crown. Parts of them, however, were given to colonists, and these as well as the resident population had the right to use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this right, the forest came to be considered commons, proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally, a division came about, some of the lands becoming the property of the parishes, others of smaller districts (the hundreds), others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the State, and some remained in joint ownership of State and private individuals under various complicated conditions.

The State now owns somewhat over 16 million acres, of which, however, only 70 % are really forest, and controls more or less 4 million more, of which about 900,000 acres are ecclesiastical benefices and forests belonging to public institutions, and 2.7 million acres in State farms, which are rented.

Since 1875, the State has pursued a policy of purchase, which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per acre) to the domain. Lately, this policy has found considerable opposition. In this way, by reforesting, and by settlement of disputed titles the State property in absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres.

In Lapland the entire forest area used to belong to the State, but in order to attract settlers these were given forest property for their own use, from 10 to 100 times the area which they had cleared. This forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants (lumbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, restricting the settlers to the usufruct alone, the government taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale and limiting the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet from the base.

This interference with what was supposed to be private rights seems to have been resented, and has led to wasteful practices, in the absence of a sufficient force of forest guards. Nevertheless the law was extended to Westerbotten in 1882.

In other provinces, Wermland, Gestrikland, etc., the government vested in the owners or ironworks the right to supply themselves with charcoal from State forests. But about the middle of the 19th century, when, owing to railroad development in other parts, some of the ironworks became unremunerative and were abandoned, their owners continued to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties; and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about 1896.

Grants of certain log cutting privileges on government lands were also made to sawmills in past times, usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these grants, which were very lucrative, were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price, after which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were still some 300,000 acres under such grants.

No wonder that under these circumstances the value of the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed at only $1.60 per acre; the net income being $1,680,753, or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for administration, supervision, and forest school amounting to $423,659, to which should be added an undetermined amount for the participation of the domain bureau, the agricultural department and provincial governments, all taking part in the forest administration.

Many of the towns and country districts (haerad) have received donations of forest areas from the Crown, which have been a considerable source of revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and other similar results are recorded.

These communal and institute forests of various description comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres, or 5.5 %, and are placed under management of local committees, with the governor of the province as chairman. The management consists in selling stumpage of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations.

In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year terms for prices which were often realized from the forest in the first winter. At present longer leases than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners could then lease away other sizes, it might happen that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest. Of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies.

By the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included, which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent, provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms. The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total private forest area, which includes the bulk of the commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3 %), unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over 50 million.

2. Development of Forest Policy

From the times of Olaf Tratâlja, the first Christian king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Wermland, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated.

It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up “as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest, and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting.”

Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of overseers of the public forests.

The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive, laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in 1720, a director of forests for the two southern districts, Halland and Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the execution of the laws was placed under a special officer.

This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department.

A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire 18th century, although it is questionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement, and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction lay, had other interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties, and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility.

It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction – in the light of present experience a rather amusing anticipation. These jeremiads, however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a commission which reported after 5 years of investigation. A new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805.

In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to study methods employed in that country. Long before that time, about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large forest areas had imported a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier, the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result.