A Brief History of Forestry.

In 1836, a forest administration for the state domain was inaugurated, but the unfortunate division of powers between military and civil authorities was a hindrance to effective improvement of conditions. The fire ravages of 1871 led to a thorough re-organization under the direction of Tassy, in 1873.

Nevertheless, in 1900, Lefebvre, Inspector of Forests, in his book, Les forêts de l’Algérie, still complains that the forests are being ruined, especially by pasturing, the means allowed the administration being too niggardly measured.

The Forest Code of the home country and special laws enacted from time to time applies. The administration of the state and communal forest is directly under the home department and is regulated in similar manner.

A re-organization and a special forest code for Algiers was enacted in 1903. This legislation relies still largely on the general principles of the Code of 1827. The most interesting features are the provision for expropriation and addition to the state domain of forests the preservation of which is of public interest, and the rigorous forest fire legislation, which permits the treatment of incendiaries as insurrectionists, makes the extinction of forest fires a duty of the forest officials, and provides the forcible establishment of fire lines (rides) between neighbors.

In the forests placed under the forestry regime, permits from the governor-general are required for clearing. For the administration of these properties, the state receives ten per cent. of the gross yield. Reforested hilltops or slopes and sand dunes are relieved from taxes for 30 years, burnt areas for 10 years.

In the other African possessions, unregulated exploitation of the tropical forests, largely for by-products, like caoutchouc, kola, and fine furniture woods, is still the order of the day, except in Madagascar, which with 25 to 30 million acres of tropical forest area, was, in 1900, provided with a forest service, which is under the Minister of Colonies. Here, a license system is in vogue, giving concessions to exploit limited areas for a given time, at an annual rent of less than one cent, per acre per year. The concessions run from 5 to 20 years, and on 12,500 acres or more, the time of their duration being extended from the lowest term for one year for every 2,500 acres. Police regulations and fines are intended to check abuses, and to regulate the rights of user exercised by natives.

In Indo-China (Cochin-China, Cambodia, Anam, Tonquin) the total forest area is still unknown. Only that of Cochin-China with 2.5 million acres, and of Cambodia with 10 million acres can be stated, and Cochin-China seems to possess the only approach to a forest service. Although it is estimated that in 1901 in the whole of Indo-China, with 18 million people, some 85 million cubic feet of wood were cut (nine-tenths fire wood) an import of over $200,000 worth of workwood from Europe was needed.

The first attempts at regulating forest use in these Asiatic possessions date back to 1862, when exploitation was confined to delimited areas. The administration, however, remained inefficient, and under impracticable and heterogeneous orders, which were issued from time to time, devastation progressed with little hindrance.

For Cochin-China, a more definite forest policy was formulated in 1894-5, when not only the State domain but also the private forest property was placed under the régime forestier. The supervision of the private forests consists in requiring the marking of trees to be cut by government agents, and a permit for their removal.

The State forests are of two classes: Reserves in which all cutting is forbidden, only some 200,000 acres; and those in which licenses to cut may operate. Such licenses are given for one year and for a price of 100 piastres. The villagers have free use of the less valuable woods, their only obligation being to assist in protection against fire and theft.

A real forest service was not instituted until 1901 a director with four assistants being placed in charge under the Department of Agriculture. Until recently reports of the deplorable condition due to absence of technical management reached the outside, but lately (1911), the Governor-General discussing the situation not only speaks approvingly of the forest service, which on the two million acres under its immediate management had, by 1909, trebled the revenue, but talks of extending its activities to planting up waste places in order to secure favorable water conditions for irrigating lands.

The rest of the colonies are being merely exploited.

RUSSIA AND FINLAND

Les Forêts de la Russie, Ministère de l’Agriculture, Paris Exposition Universelle, 1900, pp. 190, gives a very detailed description of forest conditions, markets and management, with a few historic points.

Russlands Wald, by F. v. Arnold, Berlin, 1893, pp. 526, contains historic notes and a profuse discussion of the law of 1888.

The Industries of Russia: Agriculture and Forestry, issued by the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Crown Lands, at World’s Columbian Exposition, translated by J. M. Crawford, 1893, contains a chapter on Forestry by Roudzski and Shafranov, professors at the Forest Institute, in 35 pp.

Annual reports by the Russian Forest Administration are published since 1866.

Four diffuse volumes, by John Croumbie Brown, treat of Russian conditions, namely,

Forests and Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, etc., 1885;

Finland, its Forests and Forest Management, 1883;

Forestry and Mining districts of the Ural Mountains, 1884;

Forests and Forestry of Northern Russia, 1884.

Numerous articles and Reviews by O. Guse, scattered through the German forestry journals, give insight into Russian forest conditions.

An excellent idea of prevailing forestry practice can be gained from an extended article by Dr. Schwappach, Forstliche Reisebilder aus Russland in Zeitschrift für Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1902.

For Finland an article by B. Ericson in Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1896, and another article by P. W. Hannikainen in Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1892, both native foresters, give considerable information.

Finland: Its Public and Private Economy, by N. C. Frederiksen, 1902, 306 pp.

While Germany and France were forced into the adoption of forest policies through necessity, after the natural woods had been largely destroyed or devastated, Russia started upon a conservative forest management, long before the day of absolute necessity seemed to have arrived.

Indeed, even to-day Russia is one of the largest and increasingly growing exporter of forest products in the world, its annual export having grown in the five years, 1903 to 1908, from 4 to 6 million tons and from 35 to 62 million dollars. A vast territory of untouched woods is still at her command, representing roughly two-thirds of the forest area of Europe.

The vast empire, second only to the British empire in extent, gradually acquired since the 15th century, occupies in Europe (including Finland) somewhat over 2 million square miles with over 120 million inhabitants, and in Asia somewhat over 6.5 million square miles, with only 30 to 40 million people.

Until 1906, when as a result of a revolution, a kind of representative government was secured, the hereditary Czar was ostensibly and by title an autocrat, governing with the assistance of four great councils and 12 ministers, but in reality the government was in the hands of a bureaucracy and court cabal, to a large extent corrupt, and hence the many good laws and institutions of which we read, may not always be found executed in practice as intended.

The European section of the country is divided into 98 governments or provinces, each under a governor, who is, however, largely dependent on the central power. The large territory of Siberia is divided into three governor-generalships, much of it, as well as of the other Asiatic provinces, is still unorganized, undeveloped and unexplored, or at least little known. Originally used mainly as a penal colony for criminal and political exiles, since the completion of the great Trans-Siberian railway, the country has been peopled by Russian farmers.

Both European Russia and Siberia are in the main vast plains, the former sloping northwestward from the Ural mountains in the East and from the Caucasus in the South, and the latter from the Altai, Lyan and Yabloni mountains north to the Arctic Ocean. Both sections exhibit in the southern ranges the effect of continental climates, prairie and plains country: the steppe; and in its northern ranges the effect of an arctic climate, short hot summers and long, severe winters: tundra and swamps.

1. Forest Conditions and Ownership

Both the forest area and the ownership conditions vary very much throughout the empire. Russian statistics are very unreliable and are based on estimates rather than enumerations, and vary from year to year.

So little is known of conditions in Asia, where Russia occupies a territory three times as large as its European possessions, that we can dispose of them briefly. There exists a vast forested area, almost unknown as to its extent and contents, or value. This area is mainly located in Siberia, and although its extent is uncertain, it is known to exceed 700 million acres, but it is also known that its character is very variable, and much of it is “taiga” or swamp forest, much of it devastated, and much of it in precarious condition, fires having run and still running over large portions, destroying it to such an extent that in several of the provinces within the forest belt, the question of wood supplies is even now a troublesome one. The natives are especially reckless, and devastation difficult to control. The railroad has only increased the evils.

Here, in Siberia, the first attempt at a management was made in 1897 in the government forests, which are estimated at over 300 million acres; in addition about 400 million acres have been declared reserved forests. Not one-third, however, even of the government forests is well stocked and less than 4 million acres are under some form of management.

In European Russia, the forest area comprises about 465 million acres, or 36 % of the land area. The population being now over 120 million (nearly one-half escaped from serfdom only since 1861), the forest area per capita is only about 4 acres, somewhat less than in the United States, half of what is claimed for Sweden and Norway, although seven times as large as that of Germany or France.

It will be seen, therefore, that Russia, although still an exporting country, has reasons for a conservative policy, even if only the needs of the domestic population are considered, which alone probably consumes more than the annual increment of the whole forest area; and the consumption is growing with the growth of civilization as appears from the increase of wood consuming industries, which in 1877 showed a product of 8 million dollars, in 1887, of 121⁄2 million, in 1897, of 50 million dollars.

This assertion, that the era of over-cutting has actually arrived, may be made in spite of the stated fact, that in the northern provinces only two-fifths of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget, is cut and marketed, and that other most uncertain estimates make the cut 17 cubic feet per acre of productive forest area, and the annual growth, on still more uncertain basis, 31 cubic feet.9 The same reasons that operate in the United States contribute to wasteful practices, namely uneven distribution of forest and population.

In the two northern provinces, in which the state owns nearly the entire forest area it is estimated that 8 cubic feet per acre would be available felling budget, but only 10 per cent. of this is actually cut and sold. Outside of this territory the available felling budget is calculated at 24 cubic feet per acre, but only 60 per cent. or 14 cubic feet is being cut. Altogether in 1898 there were cut in the State forests (somewhat over 300 million acres), 1,860 million cubic feet, say 6 cubic feet per acre or 40 per cent. of the estimated proper felling budget. The administration claims that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable. In 1906, the budget was placed at 345 million cubic feet, but only 130 million were cut.

An estimate of the cut in the communal forests with 12 cubic feet, in the peasants holdings with 20 cubic feet, and in the private forests with 40 cubic feet per acre, brings the total for the country to round 10 billion cubic feet, worth round 100 million dollars for stumpage. It is assumed that 30 cubic feet should be the annual increment per acre, when it would appear that only 70 per cent. of the increment is cut.

The cut in the State forests was sold for 21 million dollars (1898), or at an average of less than 1c. per cubic foot. The highest price paid in the Vistula district was 2.5 cents, which scales down to 1c. in Siberia and to one-third cent. in the Caucasus. This refers to stumpage, nearly all sales being made on the stump to wood merchants by bids, the trees being marked in some parts, in others the area only being designated. The transportation is almost entirely by river. From 1883 to 1901 the net revenue from the State forests increased from 16 to 47 million dollars, while the expenditures dropped from 29 per cent. of the gross revenue to 18.4 per cent. The gross result is 46 cents per acre. In 1906, the returns were $27 million, and expenses $5 million.

As in the United States the East and West are or were well wooded, with a forestless agricultural region between, so in Russia the North and the South (Caucasus Mountains) are well wooded, with a forestless region, the steppe, between. This leads, as with us, to an uneconomical exploitation of the woods, the inferior materials being wasted because not paying for their transportation in one section, and dearth of timber and fuelwood in the other section.

The two most northern provinces of Archangel and Vologda, in size equal to all Germany, are wooded to the extent of 75 and 89 per cent. respectively, and the 14 northern provinces together contain nearly one-half the entire forest area. Here the forest covers 64 per cent. of the land area, and nowhere below 20 per cent., and the acreage per capita ranges from 3 to over 200.

These largely unsettled provinces are the basis of the active wood export trade, and, as in the similarly conditioned areas of North America, the territory is devastated by fires, which sweep again and again over large areas without check.

Southern Russia (excepting the Caucasus), is largely prairie or steppe, forest cover sinking below 20 per cent. on the whole, down to 2 per cent., and less than one-half acre per capita.

Altogether, one-half the country and three-fourths of the population are, with less than 14 per cent. of the forest area, exposed to a dearth of timber.

The northern forest, the most important economic factor, is composed largely of pure or mixed coniferous woods (74 %), principally Norway Spruce (34 %) and Scotch Pine (29.5 %) with only slight admixtures of larch and fir, and more frequently White Birch. Open stand, comparatively poor development, and slow growth, characteristic of northern climate, reduce its productive capacity, while frequent bogs and other natural waste places outside of those produced by mismanagement reduce its productive area by not less than 20 per cent.

Toward the south, deciduous species are more frequent, oak finally becoming the prevailing timber and forming forests, with beech, maple, ash and elm as admixtures. As the plains are approached pure deciduous forest indicates the change of climate. The forest of the Caucasus is principally of coniferous composition.

There are six classes of forest property: the government domain; the apanage or imperial family (crown) forests; private forests; peasant or communal forests; institute or corporation forests; and forests of mixed ownership in which government and private owners participate.

The larger part of the forest area of European Russia is in control of the Crown or State, namely, nearly 278 million acres, or a little less than two-thirds of the whole, and a similar amount in Asia, besides the so-called apanage forests of 14 million acres set aside for the support of the court. Especially the northern forest is in government control, in some governments (Archangel) the entire area; 67 % of the domain forest lies in the two governments of Archangel and Wologda.

In the less wooded districts State property, is insignificant. The area under government control in Europe and Asia is estimated in the official report for 1908 at around 957 million acres. This is, however, not the exclusive property of the State; only about 260 million acres are so claimed, the larger balance includes 170 million acres which are to be apportioned to the liberated peasants, 200 million acres in which the government is only part owner, or the ownership is in dispute; and the rest is only temporarily placed under the management or surveillance of the administration. Yet, 60 % in Europe and 13 % in Asia is exclusive State property. In 1907, the area in Europe under working plans of the Forest Administration, however, was only 48 million acres, 86 million having been examined for working plans. Of the State property in Europe 34 % is spruce forest, 30 % pine, and 26 % mixed conifer forest; altogether 88 % of coniferous timber. The Asiatic area is also over 80 per cent. coniferous.

The apanage or crown forests, the yield of which goes toward maintenance of the imperial family, comprise about 16 million acres, or 3.4 %. Private forest property to the extent of over 100 million acres (23 %) is most developed in the Baltic provinces and along the Vistula. Mining corporations and other institutes own about 7 million acres.

The peasants, who until 1861 were mere serfs and had no ownership of any kind, being supplied with their necessities by the landed proprietors, still largely supply themselves in the northern provinces by the exercise of rights of user from the public domain on designated areas. In the central and southern provinces, farm and forest land, the latter to the extent of nearly 40 million acres, were given to them in communal ownership. As stated above, about 170 million acres classed as government domain still awaits partition and cession to the peasants.

2. Development of Forest Policy

The first record of attention to the woods as a special property dates from Michael, the founder, and Alexis, the second of the house of Romanoff, the former becoming Czar in 1613, the latter in 1645. He it was who began to introduce Western civilization. He confined himself, however, to regulating property rights, which up to that time had remained somewhat undefined, the forest, as elsewhere, being considered more or less public property. He issued deeds of ownership, or at least granted exclusive rights to the use of forests, somewhat similar as was done in the banforests. Soldiers alone were permitted to help themselves, even in private forests, to the wood they required. Protection against theft and fire was also provided.

The peasants, being serfs, were bound to the glebe, and had, of course, no property rights, being maintained by the bounty of the seigneurs.

Alexis’ successor, the far-seeing Peter the Great, who in his travels in Germany and other European countries had, no doubt, been imbued with ideas of conservatism, inaugurated in the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century a far-reaching restrictive policy, which had two objects in view, namely economic use of wood, which he had learned to appreciate while playing carpenter in Amsterdam, and preservation of ship timber, which his desire to build up a navy dictated. All forests for 35 miles alongside of rivers were declared in ban, and placed under the supervision of the newly organized Administration of Crown forests. In these banforests, the felling of timbers fit for ship building was forbidden. Minute regulations as to the proper use of wood for the purposes for which it was most fit were prescribed, and the use of the saw instead of the axe was ordered. These rules were to prevail in all forests, with a few exceptions, and penalties were to be exacted for contraventions.

This good beginning experienced a short setback under Catherine I (1725), Peter’s wife, who, influenced by her minister, Menshikoff, abolished the forest administration and the penalties, and reduced the number and size of banforests. But the entire legislation was re-enacted within three years after Catherine’s death (1727) under Anna Ivanovna’s reign, and many new prescriptions for the proper use of wood were added and additional penalties enforced.

At this time, under the influence of a German “forest expert,” Fokel, the increase of forest area by sowing oak, etc., in the poorly wooded districts, was also inaugurated; and this planting was made obligatory, not only on the administration of crown forests, but also upon private owners, who in case of default were to lose their land and have it reforested by the forest administration. To Fokel’s initiative is also to be credited the celebrated larch forest on the Gulf of Finland.

These restrictions of private rights and the tutelage exercised by the forest administration were abolished in toto by Catherine II, in 1788, and although it was reported by the admiralty, concerned in the supply of shipbuilding materials, that as a consequence the cutting, especially of oak timber, was proceeding rapidly, no new restrictive, but rather an ameliorative policy was attempted, such as, for instance, the offering of prizes for plantations in certain localities by the provincial governors.

Upon the abolishment of the serfdom of the peasants, under Alexander II, in 1863, lands, both farm and woodlands, were allotted to them, and in this partition, in some parts as much as 25 to 50 % of this forest property was handed over to them. Immediately a general slaughtering, both by peasants and by the private owners, who had suffered by losing the services of the serfs, was inaugurated, leading to wholesale devastation.

Servitudes or rights of user also prevailed in some districts and proved extremely destructive.

By 1864, complaints in regard to forest devastation had become so frequent that a movement for reform was begun by the Czar, which led to the promulgation of a law in 1867, followed by a number of others during the next decade, designed to remedy the evils. This was to be done by restricting the acreage that might be felled, by forbidding clearings, and by giving premiums for good management and plantations. Finally, in 1875, a special commission was charged with the elaboration of a general order which, after years of hearing of testimony and of deliberation, was promulgated in 1888, a comprehensive law for the conservation of forests, private and otherwise, which in many respects resembles the French, in other respects the Swedish conservation laws.

The devastation and its evil consequences on waterflow and soil conditions had been especially felt in the southern districts adjoining the steppe, and these experiences were the immediate cause for the enactment of the law, which, however, was framed to apply conditionally to the entire European Russia.

The law makes an interesting distinction between “protective,” “protected” and non-protective, or unprotected forests, as well as between different ownership classes, and it makes distinction of four regions as to the extent of its application. In the far northern governments, densely forested (60 %) and thinly populated, only the protective forests are under the operations of the law. In the Caucasus also, none of the restrictions of private property except in protective and communal peasant forests are to apply, perhaps because the forest area (averaging not over 17 %) is there largely owned by members of the imperial house and by nobles. In certain districts adjoining the northern zone (with 37 % forest) also only the last two classes of forest, namely protective and communal properties, with institute forests added, are subject to the provisions of the law. The rest, a territory of over one million square miles with only 12 % in forest, is subject to all the provisions of the law, which is remarkably democratic in treating State, imperial and private forests alike.