History of Julius Caesar Vol. 1 of 2

556

Titus Livius, XXI. 63; XXV. 3.

557

Valerius Maximus, IV. viii. 2.

558

Valerius Maximus, IV. v. 1.

559

They had no deliberative voice, because, according to the public Roman law, no acting magistrate could vote. (See Mommsen, i. 187.)

560

“Now you have still the comitia by centuries, and the comitia by tribes. As for the comitia by curiæ, they are observed only for the auspices.” (Cicero, Second Oration on the Agrarian Law, 9.)

561

The ancient mode of division by curiæ had lost all significance and ceased to be in use. (Ovid, Fasti, II. 1. 531.) So Cicero says, speaking of them: “The comitia, which are retained only for the sake of form, and because of the auspices, and which, represented by the thirty lictors, are but the appearance of what was before. Ad speciem atque usurpationem vetustatis.” (Oration on the Agrarian Law, II. 12.) – In the latter times of the Republic, the curiæ, in the election of the magistrates, had only the inauguration of the flamens, of the king of the sacrifices (rex sacrificulus), and probably the choice of the grand curion (curio maximus). (Titus Livius, XXVII. 8. – Dionysius of Halicarnassus, V. 1. – Aulus Gellius, XV. 27. – Titus Livius, XXVII. vi. 36.)

562

“Achaia alone had twelve hundred for her share.” (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 50.)

563

Titus Livius, XXXIII. 32.

564

“The allies exclaimed that the war must be continued, and the tyrant exterminated, without which the liberty of Greece would be always in danger. It would have been better not to have taken up arms at all than to lay them down without having attained the end. The consul replied, ‘If the siege of Lacedæmon retained the army a long time, what other troops could Rome oppose to a monarch (Antiochus) so powerful and so formidable?’” (Titus Livius, XXXIV. 33.)

565

Titus Livius, XXXIII. 12.

566

Titus Livius, XXXIV. 58.

567

“Other peoples of Greece had shown in this way a no less culpable forgetfulness of the benefits of the Roman people.” (Titus Livius, XXXVI. 22.)

568

Titus Livius, XXXVII. 45.

569

Appian, Wars of Hannibal, 43.

570

Titus Livius, XL. 38; XLII. 22.

571

Roads from Arezzo to Bologna, from Placentia to Rimini (Titus Livius, XXXIX. 2), and from Bologna to Aquileia.

572

Roman Colonies – 488-608.

Æsulum (507), or Æsium, according to Mommsen, Jesi in Umbria, on the River Æsis.

Alsium (507), a maritime colony, Etruria (Via Aurelia); Palo, near Porto.

Fregenæ (509), a maritime colony, Etruria (Via Aurelia); Torre Maccarese.

Pyrgi (before 536), maritime colony, Etruria (Via Aurelia); Santa Severa.

Castrum (555), Pagus, near Sylaceum; Bruttium, near Squillace; united in 631 to the colony Minerviæ.

Puteoli (560), maritime colony, Campania; Pozzuoli; Prefecture.

Vulturnum (560), maritime colony, Campania; Castelamare, or Castel di Volturno; Prefecture.

Liternum (560), maritime colony, Campania; Tor di Patria, near the Lago di Patria; Prefecture.

Salernum (560), maritime colony, Campania; Salerno; decreed three years before.

Buxentum (560), maritime colony, Lucania; Policastro.

Sipontum (560), maritime colony, Apulia; Santa Maria di Siponto; recolonised.

Tempsa (Temesa) (560), maritime colony, Bruttium; perhaps near to Torre del Piano del Casale.

Croton (560), maritime colony, Bruttium; Cotrone.

Potentia (570), maritime colony, Picenum; Porto di Potenza, or di Ricanati.

Pisaurum (570), maritime colony, Gaulish Umbria (Via Flaminia); Pesaro.

Parma (571), Cispadane Gaul (Via Æmilia); Parma; Prefecture.

Mutina (571), Cispadane Gaul (Via Æmilia); Modena; Prefecture.

Saturnia (571), Etruria (centre); Saturnia.

Graviscæ (573), maritime colony, Etruria (south) (Via Aurelia); San Clementino or Le Saline (?).

Luna (577), Etruria (north), (Via Aurelia); Luni, near Sarzana.

Auximum (597), maritime colony, Picenum; Osimo.

Latin Colonies: 488-608.

Firmum (490), Picenum (Via Valeria); Fermo.

Æsernia (491), Samnium; Isernia.

Brundisium (510), Iapygian Calabria (Via Egnatia); Brindisi.

Spoletum (513), Umbria (Via Flaminia); Spoleto.

Cremona (536), Transpadane Gaul; Cremona; reinforced in 560.

Placentia (536), Cispadane Gaul (Via Æmilia); Piacenza.

Copiæ (territory of Thurium) (561), Lucania.

Vibo, or Vibona Valentia, called also Hipponium, Bruttium (565, or perhaps 515); Bibona. Monte-Leone.

Bononia (565), Cispadane Gaul (Via Æmilia); Bologna.

Aquileia (573), Transpadane Gaul; Aquileia.

Carteia (573), Spain; St. Roque, in the Bay of Gibraltar.

573

Titus Livius, XXXIX. 26.

574

Titus Livius, XLI. 19.

575

Titus Livius, XLI. 22.

576

Titus Livius, XLII. 62.

577

Titus Livius, XLI. 5.

578

Titus Livius, XLV. 21 et seq.

579

Titus Livius, XLV. 29.

580

Titus Livius, XLV. 26.

581

Titus Livius, XLV. 18. – “The laws given to the Macedonians by Paulus Æmilius were so wisely framed, that they seemed to have been made not for vanquished enemies, but for allies whose services it was desired to reward; and in which, after a long course of years, use, the sole reformer of laws, showed nothing defective.” (Titus Livius, XLV. 32.)

582

Polybius, XXX. 10; XXXV. 6.

583

Titus Livius, XLII. 24. – We see by the following passage in Livy that Masinissa feared the justice of the Senate as against his own interest: “If Perseus had had the advantage, and if Carthage had been deprived of the Roman protection, nothing would then have hindered Masinissa from conquering all Africa.” (Titus Livius, XLII. 29.)

584

Titus Livius, XLV. 13.

585

Titus Livius, XLV. 42.

586

Titus Livius, XLV. 44.

587

Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 45.

588

Titus Livius, XLI. 7.

589

Titus Livius, XLIII. 1.

590

Titus Livius, XXXIX. 3.

591

“It was commonly said that the masters of the Spanish provinces themselves opposed the prosecution of noble and powerful persons.” (Titus Livius, XLIII. 2.)

592

Valerius Maximus, VI. ix. 10.

593

Montesquieu, Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, ix. 66.

594

Scipio reproves the people, who wished to make him perpetual consul and dictator. (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 56.)

595

Cato used interpreters in speaking to the Athenians, though he understood Greek perfectly. (Plutarch, Cato the Censor, 18.) – It was an old habit of the Romans, indeed, to address strangers only in Latin. (Valerius Maximus, II. ii. 2.)

596

Plutarch, Cato the Censor, 8, 25.

597

Titus Livius, Epitome, XLVIII. – Valerius Maximus, IV. i. 10.

598

Plutarch, Cato the Censor, 34. – Aulus Gellius, VI. 14.

599

Titus Livius, Epitome, XLIX.

600

“Cato barked without ceasing at the greatness of Scipio.” (Titus Livius, XXXVIII. 54.)

601

“P. Cato had a bitter mind, a sharp and unmeasured tongue.” (Titus Livius, XXXIX. 40.)

602

“He declaimed against usurers, and he himself lent out, at high interest, the money which he got from his estates. He condemned the sale of young slaves, yet trafficked in the same under an assumed name.” (Plutarch, Cato the Censor, 33.)

603

Drumann, Geschichte Roms, v., p. 148.

604

“The last act of his political life was to cause the ruin of Carthage to be determined on.” (Plutarch, Cato the Censor, 39.)

605

Titus Livius, Epitome, XLVIII.

606

At Carthage, the multitude governed; at Rome, the power of the Senate was absolute. (Polybius, VI. 51.)

607

Titus Livius, L. 16.

608

Appian, Punic Wars, 93 et seq.

609

Justin, XXXIV. 1. – Titus Livius, Epitome, LI. – Polybius, I. 2, 3.

610

Pausanias, VII. 16. – Justin, XXXIV. 2.

611

Polybius, XL. 11.

612

Appian, Wars of Spain, 52.

613

Eutropius, IV. 7.

614

The town of Garray, in Spain, situated about a league from Soria, on the Duero, is built on the site of ancient Numantia. (Miñano, Diccionario Geográfico de España.)

615

Appian, Civil Wars, V. iv. 38.

616

Velleius Paterculus, II. 20.

617

Titus Livius, XXXIV. 31.

618

Titus Livius, XLV. 21.

619

Titus Livius, VII. 43.

620

In 555, 585, and 639. (Titus Livius, XLV. 15.) – Aurelius Victor, Illustrious Men, lxii.

621

The tribune Licinius Crassus proposed, in 609, to transfer to the people the election of the pontiffs, until then nominated by the sacerdotal college. This proposition was adopted only in 650 by the law Domitia, and was anew abolished by Sylla.

622

Titus Livius, Epitome, LVII.

623

The expedition against the Scordisci, in 619.

624

Sallust, Fragm., I. 8.

625

“Corruption especially had increased, because, Macedonia destroyed, the empire of the world seemed thenceforth assured to Rome.” (Polybius, XI. 32.)

626

Sallust, Fragm., I. 10.

627

The Romans expatriated themselves to such a degree that, when Mithridates began war, and caused all the Roman citizens spread over his states to be massacred in one day, they amounted to 150,000, according to Plutarch (Sylla, xlviii.); 80,000 according to Memnon (in the Bibliotheca of Photius, Codex CCXXIV. 31) and Valerius Maximus (IX. 2, § 3). – The small town of Cirta, in Africa, could only be defended against Jugurtha by Italiotes. (Sallust, Jugurtha, 26.)

628

Sallust, Jugurtha, 35.

629

“And Rome refused to admit in the number of her citizens the men by whom she had acquired that greatness of which she was so proud as to despise the peoples of the same blood and of the same origin.” (Velleius Paterculus, II. 15).

630

See the list of Censuses at Note (^4) of page 256.

631

Mommsen, Geschichte Roms, I., p. 785.

632

The lands taken from the town of Leontium were of the extent of thirty thousand jugera. They were, in 542, farmed out by the censors; but at the end of some time, there remained only one citizen of the country among the eighty-four farmers who had installed themselves in them; all the others belonged to the Roman nobility. (Mommsen, ii. 75. – Cicero, Second Prosecution of Verres, III. 46 et seq.)

633

Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 9.

634

Diodorus Siculus, Fragments, XXXIV. 3.

635

Diodorus Siculus, Fragments, XXXVI., p. 147, ed. Schweighæuser.

636

Strabo, XIV. v. 570.

637

“Our ancestors feared always the spirit of slavery, even in the case where, born in the field and under the roof of his master, the slave learnt to love him from his birth. But since we count ours by nations, each of which has its manners and gods, or perhaps has no gods, no, this vile and confused assemblage will never be kept under but by fear.” (Tacitus, Annales, XIV. 44.)

638

In 442, the censor Appius Claudius Cæcus causes the freedmen to be inscribed in all the tribes, and allows their sons the entrance to the Senate. (Diodorus Siculus, XX. 36.) – In 450 the censor Q. Fabius Rullianus (Maximus) confines them to the four urban tribes (Titus Livius, IX. 46); towards 530, other censors opened again all the tribes to them; in 534, the censors L. Æmilius Papus and C. Flaminius re-established the order of 450 (Titus Livius, Epitome, XX.); an exception is made in favour of those who have a son of the age of more than five years, or who possess lands of the value of more than 30,000 sestertii (XLV. 15); in 585, the censor Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus expels them from the rustic tribes, where they had been again introduced, and unites them in one sole urban tribe, the Esquiline. (Titus Livius, XLV. 15. – Cicero, De Oratore, I. ix. 38.) – (639.) “The Æmilian law permits freedmen to vote in the four urban tribes.” (Aurelius Victor, Illustrious Men, 72.)

639

Valerius Maximus, VI. 2, § 3. – Velleius Paterculus, II. 4.

640

“I know Romans who have waited for their elevation to the consulship to begin reading the history of our ancestors and the precepts of the Greeks on military art.” (Speech of Marius, Sallust, Jugurtha, 85.)

641

Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus, 8.

642

“Tiberius Gracchus genere, forma, eloquentia facile princeps.” (Florus, III. 14.)

643

Velleius Paterculus, II. 2. – Seneca the Philosopher, De Consolatione, ad Marciam, xvi.

644

Plutarch, Parallel between Agis and Tiberius Gracchus, iv.

645

“Pure and just in his views.” (Velleius Paterculus, II. 2.) – “Animated by the noblest ambition.” (Appian, Civil Wars, I. 9.)

646

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 9.

647

“It was at the instigation of the rhetorician Diophanes and the philosopher Blossius that he took counsel of the citizens of Rome most distinguished for their reputation and virtues: among others, Crassus, the grand pontiff; Mucius Scævola, the celebrated lawyer, then consul; and Appius Claudius, his father-in-law.” (Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 9.)

648

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 9.

649

Aulus Gellius relates two passages from the speech of C. Gracchus, which we think ought rather to be ascribed to Tib. Sempronius Gracchus. In one, he has stated the case of a young noble who caused a peasant to be murdered because he made a joke upon him as he passed in a litter; in the other, he told the story of a consul who ordered the most considerable men in the town of Teanum to be beaten with rods, because the consul’s wife, going to bathe, had found the baths of the town not clean. (Aulus Gellius, X. 3.)

650

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 12.

651

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 16.

652

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 13.

653

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 12.

654

Machiavelli, Discourse on Titus Livius, I. 37.

655

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 16.

656

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 14.

657

Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 16, 22.

658

Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 5.

659

They interdicted to the magistrates deposed by the people the exercise of all functions, and authorised criminal proceedings against the magistrate who had been the author of the illegal banishment of a citizen. The first of these struck openly at Octavius, whom Tiberius had deposed; the second at Popilius, who, in his prætorship, had banished the friends of Tiberius. (Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 8.)

660

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 21.

661

“In 556, the curule ediles Fulvius Nobilior and Flaminius distributed to the people a million of modii of Sicilian wheat, at two ases the bushel.” (Titus Livius, XXXIII. 42.)

662

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 21. – Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, III. 20.

663

Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 7. According to what Polybius says, the period of service was fixed at ten years, for we read in Plutarch: “Caius Gracchus said to the censors that, obliged only by the law to ten campaigns, he had made twelve.” (Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 4.)

664

Fifth Period. – Roman Colonies.

Dertona (630). In Liguria, now Tortona.

Fabrateria (630). Among the Volsci (Latium Majus). Now Falvaterra. A colony of the Gracchi.

Aquæ Sextiæ (631); Aix (Mouths of the Rhone). Cited erroneously as a colony, was only a castellum.

Minervia (Scylacium) (632). In Calabria, now Squillace. A colony of the Gracchi.

Neptunia (Tarentum) (632). In Calabria, now Taranto. A colony of the Gracchi.

Carthago (Junonia). In Africa. A colony of the Gracchi, was only commenced.

Narbo Martius (636). In Narbonnese Gaul, now Narbonne. Founded under the influence of the Gracchi.

Eporedia (654). In Transpadane Gaul, now Ivrea.

In this period Rome ceases to found Latin colonies. The allied countries and the towns of the Latin name began to demand the right of city; the assimilation of Italy, in respect to language and manners, is indeed so advanced that it is superfluous, if not dangerous, to found new Latin cities.

The name of Colonies of the Gracchi is given to those which were established essentially for the aid of the poor citizens, and no longer, as formerly, with a strategic view.

Carthage and Narbonne are the first two colonies founded beyond the limits of Italy, contrary to the rule previously followed. The only example which could be mentioned as appertaining to the previous period is that of Italica, founded in Spain by Scipio in 548, for those of his veterans who wished to remain in the country. They received the right of city, but not the title of colony. The inhabitants of Aquæ Sextiæ must have been in much the same situation.

665

Velleius Paterculus, II. 6, 15. – Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 7, 8.

666

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 19 et seq.

667

Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 9. – Appian, Civil Wars, I. 23.

668

Sallust, Jugurtha, 27. – Cicero, Oration on the Consular Provinces, 2, 15; Oration for Balbus, 27.

669

Cicero, Oration for Rabirius, 4.

670

Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 7, 12. – According to Velleius Paterculus (II. 6), “he would have extended this right to all the peoples of Italy as far as the Alps.”

671

Pseudo-Sallust, First Letter to Cæsar, vii. – Titus Livius, XXVI. 22.

672

“Aut censoria locatio constituta est, ut Asiæ, lege Sempronia.” Cicero, Second Prosecution of Verres, III. – See, on this question, Mommsen, Inscriptiones Latinæ Antiquissimæ, pp. 100, 101.

673

In the province, the domain of the soil belongs to the Roman people; the proprietor is reputed to have only the possession or usufruct. (Gaius, Institutes, II. 7.)

674

The senators were reproached with the recent examples of prevarication given by Cornelius Cotta, by Salinator, and by Manius Aquilius, the conqueror of Asia.

675

Yet the Epitome of Titus Livius (LX.) speaks of 600 knights instead of 300. (See Pliny, Natural History, XXXIII. 7. – Appian, Civil Wars, I. 22. – Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 7.)

676

Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 12.

677

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 24.

678

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 17.

679

“I am not one of those consuls who think that it is a crime to praise in the Gracchi, as magistrates whose counsels, wisdom, and laws carried a salutary reform into many parts of the administration.” (Cicero, Second Speech on the Agrarian Law, 5.)

680

Appian, Civil Wars, I. 27.

681

Sallust, Jugurtha, 31.

682

Sallust, Jugurtha, 5.

683

“Marius had only made his temper more unyielding.” (Plutarch, Sylla, 39.) – “Talent, probity, simplicity, profound knowledge of the art of war, Marius joined to the same degree the contempt of riches and pleasures with the love of glory.” (Sallust, Jugurtha, 63.) – Marius was born on the territory of Arpinum, at Cereatæ, now Casamari (the house of Marius).

684

“Obtained the esteem of both parties.” (Plutarch, Marius, 4.)

685

Sallust, Jugurtha, 85.

686

Plutarch, Marius, 10.

687

Plutarch, Marius, 19.

688

Plutarch, Marius, 11.

689

Plutarch, Marius, 28.

690

Plutarch, Marius, 29.

691

Titus Livius, XXIII. 22.

692

In our opinion, bellum sociale, or sociorum, has been wrongly translated by “social war,” an expression which gives a meaning entirely contrary to the nature of this war.

693

Velleius Paterculus, II. 15.

694

List of the different Censuses: —

695

These two words are found on the Italiote medals struck during the war. A denarius in the Bibliothèque Impériale presents the legend ITALIA in Latin characters, and, on the reverse, the name of Papius Mutilus in Oscan characters: Gai, PAAPI + G (ai fili).