SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY XXI: New Physica, Physics X.0 & Technology X.0

•      Mechanical processes relating mechanical changes, motions and forces;

•      Quantum mechanical processes connecting quantum events;

•      Thermal processes relating thermal changes;

•      Electric processes converting electrical changes;

•      Magnetic processes interrelating magnetic changes;

•      Electromagnetic processes (radiation or waves) interconnecting electrical and magnetic fields;

•      Mechanothermal processes generating the differences in temparature by mechanical stresses and the inverse, thermo-mechanical phenomena producing mechanical forces with temperature changes;

•      Thermoelectric processes causing electricity with heat and electrothermal processes generating temperature change by electricity;

•      Electro-magnetic processes generating magnetism by the action of electricity and magnetoelectric processes producing electricity by the operation of magnetic forces;

•      Magneto-electromagnetic and electromagnetic-magnetic processes (including magneto-optical and optomagnetic processes) interrelating electromagnetic radiation and magnetism;

•      Mechanoelectromagnetic processes (including quantum processes and electromagnetic-mechanical processes (with reversed quantum processes) determining the interrelationships of mechanical energy and electromagnetic radiation;

•      Mechanoelectric processes (classical and quantum) and electromechanical processes where mechanical stresses generate electricity and vice versa when electricity effects mechanical phenomena;

•      Mechanomagnetic processes and magnetomechanical processes (quantum and classical) interrelating mechanical forces and magnetc forces;

•      Thermomagnetic and magnetothermal processes interrelating heat and magnetism;

•      Thermoelectromagnetic and electromagnetothermal processes interconnecting radiaton and temperature change;

•      Electro-electromagnetic and electromagneto-electrical interractions pertaining to conversion of radiation into electricity and converse phenomena, transforming electricity into electromagnetic waves.

Excluding chemical changes of substances and taking the standard case of binary force-relations, we obtain a rather exhaustive collection (network) of Natural Physical Forces, Processes, Effects and Applications, or Machines.

The mechanical forces, processes, effects and applications

The mechanical processes cover the mechanical effects ranging from the transformation of forces and motions to Hooke’s law (including nonlinear law) to nonlinear interaction of acoustic waves (e.g., effects of self-action, generation of nonlinear waves, and so on).

The most visible effects mechanical forces are deformation and flow, alteration in the form, shape or size of physical substances, as solids, liquids and gases.

Rigid, plastic or elastic deformations are caused by sudden or prolonged stress, strain, pressure, or forces, mechanical, gravitational, thermodynamic, magnetic, electric, electromagnetic forces.

Conversely, mechanical deformations lead to gravitational, mechanical, thermal, magnetic, electric, electromagnetic, or chemical effects, what is studied as separate effects, piezoelectricity, electristriction, magnetostriction, etc.

It is generally described by the symmetrical stress–energy tensor, stress–energy–momentum tensor or energy–momentum tensor, with the contravariant components of energy density and momentum density, momentum flux, sheer stress and pressure, reflecting the general reversibility mechanism. So, it makes a tensor quantity Tik of order two representing the density and flux of energy and momentum in spacetime, generalizing the stress tensor of Newtonian physics. As such, it is a feature of matter, radiation, and non-gravitational force fields, the source of the gravitational field in the Einstein field equations of general relativity, like as mass density is the source of the gravitational field in Newtonian gravity..

Again, the mechanical laws of motion and equilibrium are aligned with the more general reversal law, especially, it is Newton’s third law for the two-body system: while two body interacts, there is an action and reaction couple of equal and opposite forces, each acting on a different body and never on the same body.

There are mechanical inertia measured by mass and provided by inertial forces. The resistive forces is opposing any agency and efficiency of motive force of mechanical momentum to continue in the rest or forceless or zero net force motion in a constant velocity.

The reversibility law is an ultimate generalization of the basic law of motion: to every action there is always a reaction, to every progressive process of action there is a retrogressive action in the most general physical sense and application.

Or, the mutual actions of physical systems must have both the direct or forward action of forces as well as a reverted or backward reaction of forces. And action and reaction force-relations might act instantly, like in mechanics, or in succession, or in most times reverse effects need special discovery under spatial physical conditions, sometimes as nonlinear natural phenomena.

The simplest application of mechanical force-relationship reversibility is the mechanical power/drive train which transmits motion (power) from the engine of a car to the driving wheels, and conversely from the driving wheels to the engine.

The engine itself is the key mechanical application, as a machine converting any of various forms of energy or forces into mechanical force, power or energy or motion.

There may be as many engines as types of force or energy:

steam engine,

jet engine,

rotary engine,

rocket engine,

heat engine,

diesel energy,

gasoline engine,

internal-combustion engine,

electric engine,

magnetic engine,

electromagnetic engine,

light engine,

plasma engine,

radiation engine,

gravity engine,

or quantum gravity engine.

The QM forces, processes, effects and applications

The concept of “force-relationship” gets a deeper meaning in quantum mechanics, introducing operators instead of classical variables and the Schrödinger equation instead of Newtonian equations. The results of a measurement are now partly "quantized", appearing in discrete quantum portions, while the potentials V(x,y,z) or forcible fields, from which the forces generally can be derived, are treated like classical position variables. Only in the framework of quantum field theory, these fields are quantized as well.

There are two nuclear interactions forces, which account for the interactions of subatomic particless. The strong nuclear force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei and the weak nuclear force responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of hadrons.

The strong force is the fundamental force for the interactions between quarks and gluons as covered by the theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD). The strong interaction is mediated by gluons, acting upon quarks,antiquarks, and the gluons themselves, and it is the "strongest" of the four fundamental forces.

The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons, with its well-known effect of beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity, and having the field strength about 1000 times less than that of the strong force, but being stronger than gravity over short distances. An electroweak force theory shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are one force in excess of 1015 kelvins, the temporal conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.

In quantum mechanics, the particles acting onto each other possess the spatial variable, added with a discrete intrinsic angular momentum variable called the "spin", liable to the Pauli principle relating the space and the spin variables. Depending on the value of the spin, identical particles divided into two different general classes, fermions and bosons. In the case of two fermions (e.g., electrons) there is a strictly negative correlation between spatial and spin variables, whereas for two bosons (e.g., quanta of electromagnetic waves, or photons) the correlation is strictly positive.

In particle physics, forces are explained as the exchange of momentum-carrying gauge bosons. The quantum field theory and general relativity force is also closely connected with the conservation of momentum (4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual particles in quantum electrodynamics). The conservation of momentum derived from the symmetry of space, both being derived from the symmetrical force-interrelationship, therefore the fundamental forces are really fundamental interactions.

Accordingly, the same reversibility schema applies to all forces of fundamental interactions. The interactive relationships are well predicted with Feynman diagrams, where each matter particle is represented as a straight line (a world line) traveling through time. World lines of particles intersect at interaction nodes or vertices, and any force arising from an interaction is occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines and, in the case of virtual particle exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex. Matter and anti-matter particles are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram.

The Feynman diagrams covers the types of physical phenomena that are conceptually separate from forces: like as a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.

The QM fundamental processes contain all the quantum-mechanical effects of the microparticles interactions (e.g., fundamental interactions, reactions between elementary particles, atomic collisions, scattering of photons, quasi-particles, quantum transitions, as well as nuclear reactions of type A (a, bcd) B and reversed processes B (bcd, a) A, here A – a target-nucleus, a – bombarding particles; b, c, d – emitted particles and B– remained nuclei in the forward process).

For electromagnetic and strong (nuclear) interactions, the probabilities of forward and reversed processes are equal because of the reversibility principle; namely, the reversal symmetry of motion and the principle of detailed equilibrium for microprocesses are clearly the consequences of the process reversal law.

The applications of reversible processes as the thermonuclear reactions of atomic nuclei, consisting in the interactions of two particles at supra high temperatues, are just bind-blowing. Chains of thermonuclear reactions, the proto-proton cycle or the carbon cycle, account for the solar energy and many other stars. When in an uncontrolled state, we have the destructive force of thermonuclear bombs and the last of all human wars.

But when the thermonuclear reactions under controlled conditions, the nuclear fusion, like the laser intiated, could be the source of practically unlimited green and renewable energy.

The thermal forces, processes, effects and applications

The interrelationships between heat and energy, temperature and work, their convertibility and the mechanical work involved are all under thermal processes, force and effects, and studied by thermodynamics, a fundamental part of all the physical science. Its three laws of thermodynamic are the law of conservation of energy, the law of equilibrium, or dicreasing entropy, or an irreversible process, and the law of absolute zero. It is widely believed that an irreversible process towards a stable condition of equilibrium of sliding to a state of maximum entropy (or disorder) could be one of the most universal regulators of all natural activities. Seemingly only after reversible processes tending to a state of minimum entropy (order, highest orderness of energy). If the entropic regression from order to disorder is about chaotic disruptions of structure and organization, then its inverse, the entropic progression from disorder to order is about creative disruptions of structure and organization.

Its key concept, temperature, is an interrelationship of heat and energy. Thermodynamic forces are coming from heat and work interactions. The maximum work can be done if only the work producing process is completely reversible. For the fuels found in natures, like uranium or the fossill fuels of oil, gas or coal, it is required reversible nuclear reactions or reversible chemical reactions, respectively.

Thermodynamic processes can be carried out reversibly or irreversibly. Reversibility refers to performing a reaction continuously at equilibrium. A reversible process is a process whose direction can be "reversed" by inducing infinitesimal changes to some property of the system via its surroundings, without increasing entropy. Throughout the entire reversible process, the physical system is in an thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings.

In an ideal thermodynamically reversible process, the energy from work performed would be maximized, and that from heat would be minimized.

The thermodynamic reversibility is changes of a system’s states made spontaneously or by interacting with other systems reversed to its initial state without leaving any net effects in the systems involved.

The thermal processes embrace all the temperature changes to physical bodies (convection, cooling, heating), flow of heat, thermal conductivity, as well as the effects of thermal equilibrium radiation.

The reversal law involves thermodynamic systems in stable equilibrium states, as in classical thermodynamics, open physical systems in nonequilibrium states of nonequilibrium thermodynamics, or modern thermodynamics of dissipative systems. The nonequilibrium thermodynamics together with statistical thermodynamics studies a class of open thermodynamic systems, exchanging energy and matter with its environment, so intiating thermodynamic processes and phenomena, as thermoelectrical, galvanomagnetic, and thermogalvanomagnetic, in both directions, direct and reverse.

It is covered by the phenomenlogical equation: Ji = ∑k Lik Xk , the Onsager theorem and the Le Chatelier principle. For small fluctuations or deviations from the thermodynamic equilibrium, the equation describes the following processes.

The direct processes, when the thermodynamic force Xk is causing the same kind of thermodynamic flow Jk, as a temperature gradient – heat flow. The cross-processes, where the thermodynamic force Xk is causing different kind of thermodynamic flow Ji, as a temperature gradient – material flow in multicomponent systems, like as thermodiffusion, which must run in both directtions, foreward and backward, having special names.

Last, not least, the reversibility principle governs a reversible chemical reaction in which no net change happens in the amount of reactantsand products. In such chemical equilibrium, the two opposing reactions go in both directions at equal rates, or velocities, varying with the temparature and pressure, as to the Le Chatelier principle.

There are a lot of thermal devices based on thermal effects involving heat and work interactions.

The electrical forces, processes, effects and applications

One of the basic physical forces is Coulomb force of interaction, attraction or repulsion of objects and particles due to their electric charge. Coulomb's Law is determining the electrostatic force as varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial direction, independent of the mass of the charged objects and liable the force superposition principle. Coulomb's law reminding a gravitational force is another good case of the symmetrical force-relationship. Later the concept of the electric field was constructef useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space.

Electromotive force is responsible for generating the electricity flow from one point to another, or an electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge.

The electrical processes cover all the effects of the dielectric polarization of the material media and current electricity.

The magnetic forces, processes, effects and applications

Other basic physical forces is the Lorentz force of magnetism existing between two electric currents. Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in a magnetic field. It has the same mathematical form as Coulomb's Law except that like currents attract and unlike currents repel. Like the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at any point in space. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets, as the Earth's magnetic field causes compass magnets to become oriented by the magnetic force pulling on the needle.

The magnetomotive forces are producing a magnetic flux.

The magnetic processes include the effects of magnetization of solids, gases, atoms, molecules by an external magnetic field and also the phenomena binding changings of physical quantities characterizing magnetic phenomena in different physical media.

As a sample, we can mention the effect "Giant Magnetoresistance" as a sample of a huge magnetic inertia of magnetic resistence and the necessity of its converse effects.

The electromagnetic forces, processes, effects and applications

The forcible interrelations between electricity and magnetism result in a unified electromagnetic force acting on a charge. This complex force-relationship can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to the magnetic field).

The mutual interactions of the electric and magnetic fields are producing a "self-generating" electromagnetic field freely propagating in space with the speed of light and transporting electromagnetic energy, radiation, as waves, and exerting so called pondermotive forces. Formally it is described by the Maxwell’s Equations including the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves, unifying a number of different insights and theories into a set of 20 scalar equations, which were later reformulated into 4 vector equations by Heaviside and Gibbs.

When the electromagnetic theory was combined with optics, it led to a full description of the electromagnetic spectrum, from radio waves to gamma rays.

While reconciling electromagnetic theory with the photoelectric effect and the nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This modification to electromagnetic theory resulted in quantum electrodynamics (QED) describing all electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave–particles known as photons. The photons are the fundamental exchange particle accounting for all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the electromagnetic force.

The electromagnetic processes are coming from the mutual interactions of electric and magnetic fields.

The electromagnetic induction is another strong case of the reversal principle and convertibility laws. A changing magnetic field caused by a varying current in a conductor induces an electromotove force, a voltage, which is inversly causing the current and a magnetic field, thus creating a forceful interrelationship.

The electromagnetic processes include all the effects of electromagnetic waves such as interactions and scatterings (including visible optical, X-rays and – rays bands) or the quantum field effects. Such effects are described by the nonlinear theory of fields.

Again, the electromagnetic theory of light is due to the Maxwell’s ingenious conjecture: “if changing magnetic fields, then changing electric fields might create magnetic fields”. The Reversibility Theory is replacing “might” with “must”.

The mechanothermal and thermomechanical forces, processes, effects and applications

The mechanothermal and thermomechanical processes comprise all thermodynamic effects,

thermokinetic effects,

effects of thermal expansion in solids, gases and liquids,

thermomechanical effects in superflowing liquids (He II), and so on.

The thermoelectric and electrothermal forces, processes, effects and applications

The thermoelectric and electrothermal forces are caused by thermoelectricity and by difference of temperature.

The thermoelectric and electrothermal processes have to do with electricity generated by differences in temperature and vice versa.

They are involving such physical effects as thermoelectric and electrocaloric effects in solid conductors (Seebeck effect, Peltier effect, Thomson effect, and so on), as the direct Seebeck effect of generation of an electrical current in a circuit by the heat flow and the converse Peltier physical effect of generation of a heat flow by the current flow, as in refrigeration, and the Kelvin’s effect involving the reversible generation of heat while a current flows in a conductor with a temperature gradient. It took almost 30 years to discover these interrelated effects and more then 130 years for useful applications, as thermoelectric devices, generators, thermocouples, coolers, etc.

Thermoelectric devices are defined as a sort of devices converting heat directly into elictricity or conversly transforming electrical energy into thermal power for heating or cooling. Based on thermoelectric and electrothermal effects, they work on interactions between the flow of heat and electricity through solid bodies.

The electro-magnetic and magneto-electric forces, processes, effects and applications

The electro-magnetic and magneto-electric processes cover

the law of Bio-Savare-Laplace,

magneto-electric effects in antiferromagnetics,

the law of electro-magnetic induction (in conducting circuits), etc.

The magneto-electromagnetic and electromagnetic-magnetic forces, processes, effects and applications      

The magneto-electromagnetic and electromagnetic-magnetic processes include Faraday effect, Cotton-Mouton effect in liquids, solids, gases and plasma, Seeman effect in atoms (the main effect in magnetooptics which study an influence of constant magnetic fields on the optical properties of physical systems or objects).

Inverse Faraday effect, inverse effect of Cotton-Mouton and inverse Seeman’s effect in the same objects (liquids, solids, gases and plasma) fall under these processes as well.

Magneto-optic effects are when the presence of a quasistatic magnetic field is changing the way how an electromagnetic wave propagates through a medium. In a material, called gyrotropic or gyromagnetic, left– and right-rotating elliptical polarizations can propagate at different speeds, leading to a number of important phenomena.

When light is transmitted through a layer of magneto-optic material, the result is called the Faraday effect: the light’s plane of polarization can be rotated.

Author’s PhD was devoted to discoverying and systematizing the inverse magneto-optic effects, as inverse Faraday effects, generation of spontanous magnetic fields, in the nonlinear medium as thermonuclear plasma

(Abdullaev A., Sov. J. Plasma Physics, 14, 214 (1988); (Abdullaev A., Frolov A., Inverse Faradey Effect in Relativistic Electron Plasma, JETF, 81, 917-932, 1981)

The mechano-electromagnetic and electromagnetomotive forces, processes, effects and applications