Plain English

274. The past participle, when used alone, is almost always passive, for it refers not to the actor, but to what is acted upon, thus:

The army, beaten but not conquered, prepared for a siege.

In this sentence beaten is the past participle of the irregular verb beat, and conquered is the past participle of the regular verb conquer, and both modify the noun army, but refer to it, not as the actor, but as the receiver of the action. Hence, the past participle is also the passive participle.

Note in the following sentences the use of the present and past participle as adjectives:

A refreshing breeze came from the hills.

They escaped from the burning building.

Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, onward through life he goes.

The man, defeated in his purpose, gave up in despair.

The child, driven in its youth to work, is robbed of the joy of childhood.

The army, forced to retreat, destroyed all in its path.

The children, neglected by society, grow up without their rightful opportunities.

Exercise 1

The adjectives and participles used as adjectives in the following sentences are printed in italics. Determine which adjectives are capable of comparison, and whether they are compared by adding er or est, or by the use of more and most.

In a community regulated by laws of demand and supply, but protected from open violence, the persons who become rich are, generally speaking, industrious, resolute, proud, covetous, prompt, methodical, sensible, unimaginative, insensitive and ignorant. The persons who remain poor are the entirely foolish, the entirely wise, the idle, the reckless, the humble, the thoughtful, the dull, the imaginative, the sensitive, the well-informed, the improvident, the irregularly and impulsively wicked, the clumsy knave, the open thief, and the entirely merciful, just and godly persons.—Ruskin.

PARTICIPLE PHRASES

275. If you will refer now to Lesson 9 you will find that we studied in that lesson concerning participle phrases; that is, several words used as a participle. We found that these participle phrases may also be used as nouns; as, for example:

His having joined the union caused him to lose his position.

Having joined is here a participle phrase used as a noun, subject of the verb caused. Participle phrases may also be used as adjectives.

You remember that we had four participle phrases, as follows:

Present perfect, active, having called.

Present perfect, passive, having been called.

Progressive, active, having been calling.

Progressive, passive, being called.

These participle phrases are used as adjectives to describe and modify nouns, thus:

The soldier, having joined his comrades, fought in the trenches.

The nurse, having been watching for days, was nearly exhausted.

The passive phrases also are used as adjectives, thus:

The woman, having been hired by the manager, went to work.

The man, being attacked, fought bravely.

Here the participle phrases having been hired and being attacked are used as adjectives to modify the nouns woman and man.

Use the participles and participle phrases of the verbs see and obey in sentences of your own.

USES OF ADJECTIVES

276. In our use of adjectives, we find it convenient to use them in several different ways. The most common use is closely connected with the noun as a modifying word, seeming in a sense almost a part of the noun; as in the sentence, These brave men have bequeathed to us splendid victories. In this sentence these and brave are easily discovered to be adjectives, being used in such close connection with the noun.

But sometimes we find the adjectives a little farther away from the noun which it describes, and then it becomes a little more difficult to find. You will recall, in our study of the copulative verb be, that we found it was simply a connecting word, connecting that which followed the verb with its subject. So we often find an adjective used in the predicate with a copulative verb showing what is asserted of the subject. When an adjective is used in this way, it modifies the subject just as much as if it were directly connected by being placed immediately before the noun. For example:

The lesson was long and difficult.

Long and difficult are used in the predicate after the copulative verb was, but are used to modify the subject lesson just as much as though we said instead, It was a long and difficult lesson. So watch carefully for adjectives used with the copulative verb be in all its forms, am, is, are, was, were; and the phrases, has been, will be, must be, etc.

277. You may find adjectives also used following the noun. As, for example: The man, cool and resolute, awaited the attack. Cool and resolute are adjectives modifying the noun man, but they follow the noun, instead of being placed before it.

COMMON ERRORS

278. There are a number of common errors which we make in comparison, which we should be careful to avoid.

1. A number of adjectives cannot be compared for they in themselves express the highest degree of quality, so they have no shades of meaning and will not admit of comparison. For example: full, empty, level, round, square. If a thing is full or empty or level or round or square, it cannot be more full, or more empty, or more level, or more round, or more square. So do not compare adjectives that already express the highest degree of a quality. Also such words as supreme, eternal, and infallible, cannot be compared for they also express the highest degree of quality.

2. Do not use more with the comparative form made by using er, or most with the superlative form, made by using est. For example: do not say, They cannot be more happier than they are. Say, They cannot be happier; or They cannot be more happy. Use either form but never both. Do not say, That is the most wisest plan. Say either, That is the wisest plan; or That is the most wise plan, but never use both forms. Never use most with a superlative form.

3. Do not use the superlative form in comparing two objects. The superlative form is used only when more than two are compared. For example; do not say, He is the smallest of the two. Say, He is the smaller of the two. Which is the largest end? is incorrect. Which is the larger end? is correct. Which is the oldest, John or Henry? is also incorrect. This should be, Which is the older, John or Henry? Use the comparative form always when comparing two objects.

4. In stating a comparison, avoid comparing a thing with itself. For example; New York is larger than any city in the United States. In this sentence, when you say any city in the United States, you are including New York; so you are really comparing New York with itself, and you are saying that New York is larger than itself. You should have said, New York is larger than any other city in the United States; or, New York is the largest city in the United States. When you compare an object with all others of its kind be sure that the word other follows the comparative word than.

5. When an adjective denoting one or more than one modifies a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. For example; The house is 30 foot square. Thirty denotes more than one, so a plural noun should be used, and this sentence should be, The house is 30 feet square. We are traveling at the rate of 40 mile an hour. This should be, We are traveling at the rate of 40 miles an hour.

6. Only two adjectives, this and that change their form when modifying a plural noun. These and those are the plural forms of this and that. So remember always to use this and that with singular nouns and these and those with plural nouns. For example; do not say, These kind of people will never join us. You should say, This kind of people will never join us. Or, Those sort of flowers grows easily. You should say, That sort of flowers grows easily.

7. Place your adjectives where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies. For example; do not say, a fresh bunch of flowers, a new pair of shoes, a salt barrel of pork, an old box of clothes, a cold cup of water, a new load of hay. Put the adjective with the noun which it modifies, and say, a bunch of fresh flowers, a pair of new shoes, a barrel of salt pork, a box of old clothes, a cup of cold water, a load of new hay.

8. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns they qualify, but sometimes, especially in poetry or in the use of participles, they follow the nouns. They should not, however, be placed too far away from the noun which they modify or be unnecessarily separated from the noun. Where there are two or more adjectives used to qualify the same noun, place nearest the noun the adjective most closely connected with the object described and place farthest from the noun the adjective least closely connected with the noun. If they are all of the same rank, place them where they will sound best, usually according to their length, naming the shortest adjective first.

Correct the following sentences by arranging the adjectives in the proper order:

The summer sky was a blue, soft, beautiful sky.

He bought a brown, fine, big horse.

A gold, beautiful, expensive watch was given her.

The new, beautiful apartment building is on the corner.

He advertised for a young, intelligent, wide awake man.

9. Never use them as an adjective. Them is a pronoun. One of the worst mistakes which we can make is to use such phrases as them things, them men, them books. Say, those things, those men, those books.

10. Do not use less for the comparative form of few. The comparative form of few is fewer. Less refers only to quantity, fewer to number. For example:

He raised less grain this year than last, because he has fewer horses now than he had then.

He uses fewer words because he has less to say.

There are but few people here today; there were still fewer (not less) yesterday.

Exercise 2

Correct the adjectives in this exercise:

1. Hand me the little knife.

2. He claims to be more infallible than anyone else.

3. Mary is the oldest of the two.

4. He was the bestest boy in school.

5. The barn is forty foot long.

6. Yonder is a happy crowd of children.

7. Which is the largest end?

8. I found the bestest book.

9. This is the most principal rule.

10. Give me a cold cup of water.

11. These kind of books will not do.

12. Give me them books.

13. Who is the tallest, you or John?

Exercise 3

Mark all the adjectives in this poem. Note especially the participles used as adjectives.

THE COLLECTIONI passed the plate in church.There was a little silver, but the crisp bank-notes heaped themselves up high before me;And ever as the pile grew, the plate became warmer and warmer, until it fairly burned my fingers, and a smell of scorching flesh rose from it, and I perceived that some of the notes were beginning to smolder and curl, half-browned, at the edges.And then I saw through the smoke into the very substance of the money, and I beheld what it really was: I saw the stolen earnings of the poor, the wide margin of wages pared down to starvation;I saw the underpaid factory girl eking out her living on the street, and the over-worked child, and the suicide of the discharged miner; I saw the poisonous gases from great manufactories, spreading disease and death;I saw despair and drudgery filling the dram-shop; I saw rents screwed out of brother men for permission to live on God's land;I saw men shut out from the bosom of the earth and begging for the poor privilege to work, in vain, and becoming tramps and paupers and drunkards and lunatics, and crowding into almshouses, insane asylums and prisons;I saw ignorance and vice and crime growing rank in stifling, filthy slums;I saw shoddy cloth and adulterated food and lying goods of all kinds, cheapening men and women, and vulgarizing the world; I saw hideousness extending itself from coal-mine and foundry over forest and river and field;I saw money grabbed from fellow grabbers and swindled from fellow swindlers, and underneath the workman forever spinning it out of his vitals;I saw the laboring world, thin and pale and bent and care-worn and driven, pouring out this tribute from its toil and sweat into the laps of the richly dressed men and women in the pews, who only glanced at them to shrink from them with disgust;I saw all this, and the plate burned my fingers so that I had to hold it first in one hand and then in the other; and I was glad when the parson in his white robes took the smoking pile from me on the chancel steps and, turning about, lifted it up and laid it on the altar.It was an old-time altar, indeed, for it bore a burnt offering of flesh and blood—a sweet savor unto the Moloch whom these people worship with their daily round of human sacrifices.The shambles are in the temple as of yore, and the tables of the money-changers waiting to be overturned.—Ernest Crosby.

SPELLING

LESSON 15

There is a class of words having the sound of long e, represented by the diphthong ie, and another class having the same sound represented by ei. It is a matter of perplexity at times to determine whether one of these words should be spelled with ie or ei. Here is a little rhyme which you will find a valuable aid to the memory in spelling these words:

When the letter c you spy,

Put the e before the i.

For example, in such words as deceit, receive and ceiling, the spelling is ei. On the other hand, when the diphthong is not preceded by the letter c, the spelling is ie, as in grief, field, siege, etc.

There are a few exceptions to this rule, such as either, neither, leisure, seize and weird. Most words, however, conform to the rule—when preceded by c, ei should be used; when preceded by any other letter, ie.

Observe that this rule applies only when there is a diphthong having the sound of long e. When the two letters do not have the sound of long e, as in ancient, the rule does not apply.

Monday

Deceive

Belief

Conceive

Brief

Ceiling

Tuesday

Field

Receive

Piece

Chief

Leisure

Wednesday

Receipt

Wield

Weird

Thief

Perceive

Thursday

Deceit

Yield

Grief

Seize

Conceit

Friday

Relieve

Neither

Liege

Shield

Niece

Saturday

Relief

Achievement

Reprieve

Lien

Siege

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 16

Dear Comrade:

We have been tracing the development of written speech in order that we might have a clearer understanding of our own language. We have found how our earliest ancestors communicated with each other by signs and an articulate speech that was probably a little better than that of some animals of today. They gradually developed this articulate speech and then began to have need for some form of written speech. That which distinguishes man from the animals primarily is his power to remember and to associate one idea with another. From this comes his ability to reason concerning the connection of these ideas. Without this power of associative memory we would not be able to reason. If you could not recall the things that happened yesterday and had not the power of imagination concerning the things that may happen tomorrow, your reasoning concerning today would not be above that of the animals.

So man soon found it necessary to have some way of recalling accurately, in a manner that he could depend upon, the things that happened yesterday and the day before and still farther back in time. So that his first step was the invention of simple aids to memory such as the knotted strings and tally sticks. Then he began to draw pictures of the objects about him which he could perceive by the five senses, the things which he could see and hear and touch and taste and smell.

But man, the Thinker, began to develop and he began to have ideas about things which he could not see and hear and touch and taste and smell. He began to think of abstract ideas such as light and darkness, love and hate, and if he was to have written speech he must have symbols which would express these ideas. So we have found that he used pictures of the things he perceived with his five senses to symbolize some of his abstract ideas, as for example; a picture of the sun and moon to represent light; the bee to symbolize industry; the ostrich feather to represent justice. But as his ideas began to develop you can readily see that in the course of time there were not enough symbols to go around and this sort of written speech became very confusing and very difficult to read.

Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and so this need of man forced him to invent something entirely new—something which had been undreamed of before. He began now to use pictures which were different in sense but the names of which had the same sound. You can find an example of this same thing on the Children's Puzzle Page in the rebus which is given for the children to solve. As for example: A picture of an eye, a saw, a boy, a swallow, a goose and a berry, and this would stand for the sentence, I saw a boy swallow a gooseberry.

Perhaps you have used the same idea in some guessing game where a mill, a walk and a key stands for Milwaukee. And so we have a new form of picture writing. Notice in this that an entirely new idea has entered in, for the picture may not stand for the whole word but may stand for one syllable of the word as in the example given above. The mill stands for one syllable, walk for another and key for another. This was a great step for it meant the division of the word into various sounds represented by the syllables.

What a new insight it gives us into life when we realize that not only our bodies but the environment in which we live, the machines with which we work and even the language which we use has been a product of man's own effort. Man has developed these things for himself through a constant and steady evolution. It makes us feel that we are part of one stupendous whole; we belong to the class which has done the work of the world and accomplished these mighty things. The same blood flows in us; the same power belongs to us. Truly, with this idea, we can stand erect and look the whole world in the face and demand the opportunity to live our own lives to the full.

Yours for Freedom,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

WORDS ADDED TO VERBS

279. We have just finished the study of adjectives and we have found that adjectives are words added to nouns to qualify or to limit their meaning. Without this class of words it would be impossible for us to express all of our ideas, for we would be at a loss to describe the objects about us. Adjectives enable us to name the qualities or tell the number of the objects with which we come in contact.

The verb, we have found, expresses the action of these objects; in other words, the verb tells what things do. So with adjectives and verbs we can describe the objects named by the nouns and tell what they do. For example, I may say, Men work. Here I have used simply a noun and a verb; then I may add various adjectives to this and say, Strong, industrious, ambitious men work. By the use of these adjectives, I have told you about the kind of men who work; but I have said nothing about the action expressed in the verb work. I may want to tell you how they work and when they work; where they work and how much; in other words, describe fully the action expressed in the verb work, so I say:

The men work busily.

The men work late.

The men work well.

The men work inside.

The men work hard.

The men work here.

The men work now.

The men work more.

Words like busily, hard, late, here, well, now, inside, and more, show how, when, where and how much the men work.

We could leave off these words and still have a sentence, since the other words make sense without them, but these words describe the action expressed in the verb.

Words used in this way are called adverbs because they are added to verbs to make our meaning more definite, very much as adjectives are added to nouns.

280. The word adverb means, literally, to the verb, and one would suppose from this name that the adverb was strictly a verb modifier, but an adverb is used to modify other words as well. An adverb may be used to modify an adjective; for example, we might say: The man was very busy. This lesson is too long. Here very and too are added to the adjectives busy and long to qualify their meaning.

281. You remember in the comparison of adjectives, we used the words more and most to make the comparative and superlative degrees. Here more and most are adverbs used with the adjectives to qualify their meaning. Adverbs used in this way will always answer the question, how much, how long, etc. In the sentence, The man is very busy, very is used to answer the question how busy. And in the sentence, The lesson is too long, the adverb too answers the question how long.

An adverb is also added to another adverb sometimes to answer the question how. For example; we say, The man works very hard. Here the adverb hard tells how the man works and very modifies the adverb hard, and answers the question how hard. So we have our definition of an adverb:

282. An adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Remember that adjectives are used only with nouns or pronouns, but the adverb may be used with a verb or an adjective or another adverb. You remember that we had in our first lesson, as the definition of a word, that, a word is a sign of an idea. The idea is a part of a complete thought. See how all of these various words represent ideas, and each does its part to help us express our thoughts.