Spanish and Portuguese South America during the Colonial Period; Vol. 1

The downfall of Cabeza de Vaca did not inaugurate a reign of peace at Asuncion. Irala had been called to power by popular election, but his authority was curtailed by the pretensions of certain official persons who were nominated to their positions from Castile. Disputes and dissensions arose; but after a time these became silenced in the face of a combination against the Spaniards by two native tribes, the task of chastising whom was confided to Irala. The chosen leader of the colonists showed himself equal to the occasion. He successfully defended the colony, which he employed the following two years in consolidating. But a long period devoted to peaceful pursuits was not to the taste of a man cast in the mould of Vasco Nuñez or of Cortez. Setting out with three hundred and fifty Spaniards and two thousand auxiliaries, he ascended the Paraguay as far as to San Fernando. There the main body of the expedition left the course of the stream, their boats being entrusted to the care of some Spaniards. Irala was well fitted to be the leader of such an expedition of discovery. Active and experienced, he was likewise cautious, and was never found unprepared on an emergency. Having journeyed onwards for a month or more, his ears were at length greeted by the sound of the Spanish language from Peruvian lips. Such was the first communication which took place between the Spaniards proceeding from La Plata and those who proceeded from the Pacific Ocean.

1547.

Irala, in conformity with the orders of the President Gasca of Peru, retraced his steps to Asuncion. There he distributed to his followers repartimientos, or consignments of land and slaves—a measure which greatly added to his popularity. He likewise founded a new settlement named Ciudad Real, near the border line of the Spanish and Portuguese territories. In the year 1547 Asuncion became the seat of a bishop, and about the same time an important intermediate station between Paraguay and Peru was established at Santa Cruz de la Sierra, whilst Spanish civilization also began to extend downwards from Paraguay in the direction of the sea.

The favourable reports which had reached Spain of the climate and capabilities of Paraguay were such as to divert thither many emigrants who would otherwise have turned their faces towards Mexico or Peru. It was the constant endeavour of Irala to level the distinctions which separated the Spaniards from the natives and to encourage inter-marriages between them. This policy, in the course of time, led to a marked result,—namely, to that singular combination of outward civilisation and of primitive simplicity which was to be found in the modern Paraguayan race until it was annihilated under the younger Lopez. “It was,” to quote Mr. Washburn, who lived eight years amongst them, “an anomalous people, and the like had never been seen in any other country of America. The reason of this may be found in the fact that in no other colony did the early colonists in large numbers adopt the native language and take the Indian women as wives.”

1557.

Irala, in fact, created a nation. The colony under his administration became numerous and wealthy. From his first arrival in the New World until his death, his career was one of activity, toil, and adventure, always in the conscientious discharge of his duty to his sovereign and to those around him. He was the life and soul of the colony, and his death, which occurred in 1557 at the village of Ita near Asuncion, when he had attained the age of seventy years, was lamented alike by Spaniards and Guaranís. In the estimation of Mr. Washburn, he was the first and last great man ever known to La Plata.

From this date Paraguayan history is for a long period destitute of all marked events save one. It consists, indeed, mainly of the establishment and progress of the Order of Jesus in that country. An account of the origin and advance of this remarkable movement must be deferred to a future chapter.

CHAPTER VI.

DISCOVERY OF PERU

1521-1528

1521.

Under the pressure of the immense excitement which resulted from the discoveries of Columbus, the entire eastern coast of the American continent, from Labrador in the north to Terra del Fuego in the south, was explored within about thirty years from A.D. 1492. In the year 1520, the Portuguese mariner Magelhães, or Magellan, sailing under the Spanish flag, found, as has been said, a westerly way through the Straits which bear his name. The first distinct notice of the existence of Peru was given, it will be remembered, to Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, the discoverer of the Southern Sea, about the year 1511. The efforts of that distinguished explorer to penetrate to the Peruvian Coast were doomed to disappointment; but the idea of reaching the land of gold was not lost sight of by his successors. Darien being found unsuitable as a spot from which to prosecute expeditions on the Pacific, the capital of Central America was in the year 1518 transferred to Panamá, the governor being still Pedrarias; but several years elapsed before serious efforts of discovery were made in a southern direction, though meanwhile communication had been established through Central America with Mexico.

1522.

It was not till 1522 that a regular expedition was despatched from Panamá to the South, and its leader penetrated no further than had Balboa.

1524.

But in 1524 three men were found in the colony whose respective characters pointed them out as being conjointly fitted to undertake a discovery and conquest no less dazzling and wonderful than that which had been effected by Cortez. These were Francisco Pizarro, Diego Almagro, and Hernan de Luque, the Vicar of Panamá, who was, however, but the commissioner of the Licentiate Espinosa, who supplied the funds.

The celebrated Pizarro was a native of Truxillo in Estremadura, and at the time of setting out for the discovery of Peru was rather over fifty years of age. In his youth he had not been taught either to read or to write, but his fancy was captivated by the strange tales to which he listened of the New World beyond the sea. Embarking with other adventurers from Seville, he found his way to Hispaniola and later to Darien, from which place he accompanied Balboa in the march across the mountains which resulted in the discovery of the Southern Ocean. He later removed, with the seat of government, from Darien to Panamá, and was conspicuous in the conquest of the tribes to the north. Of Pizarro’s confederates, Almagro was, like himself, an illiterate soldier of fortune and of a similar time of life, whilst Luque supplied the greater proportion of the brains and of the funds requisite for their joint enterprise.

To Almagro’s lot it fell to make the preparations for the voyage. Two small vessels were fitted out at Panamá, the first of which set sail from that port with about a hundred men on board, under the command of Pizarro, in November 1524: Almagro was to follow in the second. Pizarro, after touching at the Isle of Pearls, steered his way across the Gulf of San Miguel, and, doubling the port of Pinas, entered the river Biru, of which word the modern name of that part of the world is believed to be a corruption. Sailing up this stream for two leagues, Pizarro caused his small force to disembark, and proceeded to explore the country. It was the rainy season, and the ground was a vast swamp, fringed with a tangled undergrowth of wood, behind which lay a hilly country, rough and rocky. The heat was at times oppressive. Under these discouraging circumstances, his men being famished and weary, Pizarro returned to his vessel, which, having dropped down the river to the ocean, proceeded on its southern course. At a few leagues’ distance he again landed to take in wood and water, after which he once more proceeded southwards. He now encountered a terrific tropical storm, and for ten days it required all the efforts of the crew to prevent the ship from foundering. They suffered likewise from an extreme dearth of food and water, and were not sorry to retrace their course and regain the port where they had last landed.

The same discouraging aspect of the country which had met them on the Biru, they now encountered here. In their hungry and miserable condition the beauties of the tangled thicket, with its network of creepers and flowering vines, were thrown away upon their eyes; they were alive to nothing but the incessant rain, the intolerable mud, and the unbroken solitude.

The spirit of Pizarro, however, was unsubdued. At the demand of his followers he consented to send back the vessel to the Isle of Pearls to lay in a fresh stock of provisions, but with the condition that he himself should meanwhile explore the adjacent country. No trace of a human dwelling, however, rewarded his search, whilst the only source of nourishment to his people was in the shell-fish they might pick up on the shore, or such berries and herbs as might be found in the woods. He was indefatigable in attending to the wants of his men, or endeavouring to alleviate their sufferings; more than twenty of them, however, died during the weary weeks succeeding the vessel’s departure.

In this miserable situation Pizarro was one day cheered by the unexpected announcement of a light seen in the neighbouring wood. Taking with him a party of his men, he forthwith followed its direction, and, after extricating himself from a maze of bushes, he came upon a native village, the inhabitants of which, scared at the unexpected apparition, forthwith fled. They left the provisions in their huts to the Spaniards, to whom the supply was a reprieve from death. The articles of food were maize and cocoa-nuts.

1525.

As no violence was offered to the natives, these soon returned and entered into intercourse with the strangers, whose eyes were now made glad by the golden ornaments which the Peruvians wore. Pizarro thus received a confirmation of the old reports of the existence of a land of gold to the south, and he now learned that over it a monarch ruled who dwelt at a distance of ten days’ journey beyond the mountains.

After six weeks from its departure the vessel returned, bringing with it an ample and welcome supply of provisions. It had been detained by stormy weather and adverse winds.

Hope and nourishment now combined to bring back to the Spaniards their eagerness for discovery; and Pizarro, re-embarking on board his vessel, left a scene to which he had given the name of the Port of Famine, and again sailed towards the south. Unguided by charts or pilots, he found his way slowly along the unknown coast, landing at every convenient point. In an open bay he disembarked some men, and at a short distance inland fell in with a native village, whose inhabitants at the approach of the strangers fled towards their hills. In their huts the Spaniards found both a provision of food and some ornaments of gold. They were, however, horrified by the discovery that they were in a country inhabited by cannibals. Again embarking, Pizarro and his men still held their way southwards till they reached a headland which he named Punta Quemada, and where he gave orders to anchor, and landed with the greater portion of his force.

Having proceeded about a league into the interior, he found, as he had expected, a native town of some size, and which was capable of defence; but the inhabitants as usual fled, leaving behind them their provisions and ornaments. Pizarro now judged it necessary to send back his vessel to be repaired at Panamá, and meanwhile he established his quarters in this Indian settlement, despatching a party to reconnoitre the country.

Now occurred the first collision between the natives and the invaders. The former saw their opportunity of attacking the reconnoitering party whilst divided from the main body. The Spaniards, taken by surprise, were at first thrown into disorder and lost three killed and several wounded; but having rallied, they returned the discharge of arrows from their cross-bows and then charged sword in hand, driving the natives before them.

The Peruvians, being of course acquainted with the country, made their way to Pizarro’s position, which they reached before his lieutenant could return, and commenced an assault upon him. But the conditions of combat were unfairly balanced. The naked and painted Peruvians, however brave, could make but a slight impression on the wary Spaniards, clad in armour and commanded by a practised soldier. Pizarro sallied forth with his men, and the natives for a time fell back before him. Returning to the charge, and singling out Pizarro, they inflicted on him seven wounds, and compelled him to retreat. He was, however, rescued from defeat by the opportune arrival of his lieutenant, who, attacking the natives from the rear, threw them into confusion, and forced them to abandon the ground to their opponents, who had lost two killed besides having many wounded.

Under these circumstances it was necessary to reconsider the intention of sending back the vessel, and on the whole it was deemed better that all should return in it to Panamá, near which place Pizarro was set on shore with the greater portion of his men, whilst his treasurer proceeded to lay before the governor his report, together with the gold which had been collected.

During this first expedition of Pizarro, his associate, Almagro, having at length equipped their second vessel, had set out to follow his leader with a body of some seventy adventurers. Tracing his way by the trees which had been notched as landmarks, he in time arrived at Quemada, where, like Pizarro, he met with hostility from the natives. Almagro, landing, carried the place sword in hand, and, setting fire to the dwellings, drove the natives into the forest. He then pursued his voyage and touched at several points, where, though he was rewarded by finding golden ornaments, he no longer discovered any traces of the presence of Pizarro. In this uncertainty he too retraced his way to the Isthmus, and soon rejoined his friend, by whom he was deputed to pass over to Panamá and make arrangements with the governor for the further prosecution of their enterprise.

1526.

By the influence of Luque a new compact was now entered into for the conquest of Peru, the command of the expedition being vested jointly in Pizarro and Almagro on equal terms, a condition which deeply mortified the former and proved the seed of future trouble. The confederates lost no time in setting about their enterprise. A contract was entered into between them by which it was declared that, whereas the parties had full authority to discover and subdue the countries and provinces lying south of the Gulf, belonging to the Empire of Peru, and as Fernando de Luque had advanced the funds for the enterprise in bars of gold of the value of twenty thousand pesos, they mutually bind themselves to divide equally among them the whole of the conquered territory. The two captains solemnly engage to devote themselves exclusively to the present undertaking until it is accomplished; and in case of failure in their part of the covenant, they pledge themselves to reimburse Luque for his advances, for which all the property they possess shall be held responsible, and this declaration is to be a sufficient warrant for the execution of judgment against them, in the same manner as if it had proceeded from the decree of a court of justice. The commanders, Pizarro and Almagro, made oath, in the name of God and the Holy Evangelists, sacredly to keep this covenant, swearing it on the missal, on which they traced with their own hands the sacred emblem of the Cross.11 It may be noted that this compact, which was dated March 10, 1526, was signed by De Luque alone of the three contracting parties, the other two being represented by witnesses, as both were incapable of writing. This remarkable arrangement, by which a Christian priest and two adventurers settled the conditions on which they were to divide amongst themselves a vast empire with all its wealth, would not have been in accordance with the tone of the age had it not been invested with a religious character. It was drawn up in the name of the Holy Trinity and of the Virgin, and its observance was sworn to on the Cross, whilst on its conclusion the contracting parties severally received the Sacrament of the Communion.

These preliminary arrangements having been completed, two vessels were purchased and equipped; but there was some difficulty in procuring men. About one hundred and sixty adventurers were, however, mustered, and a few horses were purchased. Thus provided, Pizarro and Almagro again took their departure from Panamá. No longer hugging the coast, they stood out for the furthest point previously reached by Almagro, and arrived without accident at the river of San Juan, the banks of which were lined with native habitations. Pizarro here commenced his brigandage by surprising a village and carrying off some natives and many gold ornaments. After this first success, it was decided that Almagro should return to the Isthmus, where the sight of the gold might tempt fresh recruits; whilst the pilot, taking the other vessel, should reconnoitre the coast to the south, Pizarro meanwhile remaining near the river.

The pilot Ruiz sailed southwards as far as to the bay now known by the name of St. Matthew, when he was struck by the singular apparition of a vessel of considerable size. As he drew near, it was found to be a raft of a number of huge timbers of light wood tightly lashed together, and with two masts sustaining a square sail of cotton, whilst it was steered by means of a rudely-formed rudder. It may be mentioned, in passing, that this simple form of craft is to be seen on the Peruvian coast at the present day. The pilot found both men and women on board, having on their persons articles of wrought silver and gold, their dresses being made of woollen cloth of fine texture and embroidered with coloured birds and flowers. From these unsuspecting natives he learned that in their fields fed flocks of the animals which yielded their wool, whilst gold and silver abounded in their country. Ruiz, not being less unscrupulous than his fellows, detained some of the natives to repeat and exemplify these wonders, and, by learning Spanish, to qualify themselves as interpreters. The barque having been allowed to proceed on its voyage, Ruiz advanced southwards, and was the first European who crossed the line on the Pacific Ocean. Having reached the Punta de Pasado, he retraced his way and rejoined Pizarro.

1526.

To return to that adventurer: On the departure of Ruiz and Almagro he had proceeded into the interior, where he had encountered nothing but difficulties. The forest was so dense as to be almost impenetrable, and hill rose above hill in ridges in succession, being bounded far in the distance by the barrier of the Andes. Under these difficulties many of the Spaniards perished, whilst some were waylaid and cut off by the natives. On the top of all this came famine, and they had to sustain life on such roots or fruits as the forest afforded. It may be mentioned that in the records of this expedition we find the earliest mention of a vegetable which plays so important a part in our modern domestic economy, the potato; which has thus been known to Europeans since the year 1526, and the original European discoverers of which were Pizarro and his band. From this wretched condition in the forest or on the shore, the adventurers were relieved by the return of Ruiz, followed not long after by that of Almagro with a store of provisions and a reinforcement of recruits to the number of eighty.

Thus reinspirited, the adventurers again re-embarked; but it was only after many dangers had been surmounted that they at length found refuge on the island of Gallo, which had been visited by Ruiz. Here they remained for a fortnight to repair their vessels, when they resumed their voyage and gained the bay of St. Matthew. As they proceeded along the coast they were struck by the evidences of civilization and by the inviting appearance of the country. Spaces of cultivated land were discovered bearing the maize and the potato.

At Tacamez the Spaniards saw a town which might contain two thousand houses, the men and women displaying on their persons the coveted ornaments of gold. The natives, however, showed no disposition quietly to yield up their possessions and treasures to the invaders; on the contrary, they displayed evident signs of hostility. Pizarro landed with some of his men, but, though peacefully disposed, could not prevent an encounter. The Spaniards were hotly pressed, and it is said that they owed their safe retreat to the consternation produced in the natives by the fall of one of the horsemen from his steed. The Peruvians, having never before seen the horse without his rider, were astonished at the separation of the two portions of the centaur, each of which remained alive in itself, and they retreated in dismay before the phenomenon.

In the face of the hostility which the Spaniards foresaw they would have to encounter, it was now necessary to deliberate; and accordingly a council of war was called, at which conflicting opinions were expressed, Pizarro and Almagro taking opposite views, and being with some difficulty prevented from drawing their swords upon each other. The dispute, however, ended in an arrangement, according to which Almagro as before was to proceed to Panamá for assistance, whilst Pizarro with a portion of his men should await his return on the island of Gallo, near the coast. The followers of the latter, however, strongly protested against this arrangement, and secretly communicated their discontent to the authorities at Panamá.

The return of the adventurers to that place caused great dismay. The governor not only sternly refused all further aid in the matter, but forthwith sent two vessels to bring back Pizarro and his followers from the island on which they were meanwhile experiencing the utmost misery. But the vessels which relieved his followers from hunger brought Pizarro letters from his two associates, imploring him not to give up the enterprise for lost. Strengthened by this expression of hope, Pizarro, the pilot Ruiz, and twelve others determined to abide where they were, and to await whatever fate might have in store for them. They needed all their fortitude. Having constructed a raft and removed to another neighbouring island, called Gorgona, where they could more easily defend themselves, they had to remain for seven weary months before the arrival of a vessel to their rescue. Although it brought no fresh recruits, its coming was nevertheless greeted with joy, and Pizarro and his men were soon again afloat, under the guidance of the pilot Ruiz. A tedious voyage of three weeks now awaited them before they arrived at the Gulf of Guayaquil. The coast was here studded with towns and villages, above which towered Chimborazo and Cotopaxi. Guided by the two natives whom they had taken from the Bolsa, they now steered for the city of Tumbez, a place of considerable size. Communication was opened with the inhabitants by means of the interpreters on board, who were directed to assure their countrymen of the peaceful intentions of the strangers. Provisions were thereupon supplied them from balsas laden with bananas, Indian-corn, sweet potatoes, pine-apples, and cocoa-nuts, to which were added game, fish, and llamas or Peruvian sheep. One of the balsas likewise bore a Peruvian chief, who was naturally curious to know what had brought Pizarro and his followers to these shores. Pizarro, according to the Spanish historian, replied that he was the servant of the greatest of princes, and that he had come to this country to assert his master’s lawful supremacy over it, and to impart to its inhabitants the light of the only true religion.

Here it may be well to remark, in passing, on the moral aspect of the expedition of which Pizarro was the chief, which cannot be justified if measured even in the scale of morality of the Greeks or of the Romans; for they, though not unduly tender towards the natural rights of those whom they styled barbarians, were at least careful to provide a casus belli. No such excuse can be urged for the conquest of Peru. That devoted country happened to lie within the boundaries assigned by Pope Alexander VI. to Spain; but it would be somewhat hard to charge upon the Church the guilt and infamy of the wholesale rapine and slaughter with which the Spanish conquest was attended. The Church was laudably desirous to extend the sphere of her influence; and if the end might be held to justify the means, she might no doubt congratulate herself in that vast regions where the name of Jesus had never been uttered were now about to be brought within her pale. As a Catholic, Pizarro may be excused for endeavouring to further schemes consecrated by the head of the Church; whilst as a loyal subject, he at the same time sought to extend the dominions of his sovereign. The responsibility for permitting and countenancing expeditions such as that of which he was the chief must rest with the Pope or Emperor, or with those who acted with their authority. Yet Pizarro was there neither to proselytize nor simply to conquer, far less was he fired, like Columbus, by zeal for the furtherance of science. His object in the main was to acquire gold; and, however we may admire his perseverance and energy, the magnificent scale on which his spoliations were carried on should not make us regard him in any other light than in that of a freebooter.