The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole

Nansen was as pleased as a child with a new dress when on 12th May he was able to put on his blanket-trousers, strengthened inside and out with pieces of an old pair of drawers and of a shirt.

The stores which had been buried at the beginning of the winter were now dug up, and greatly to Nansen’s disappointment it was found that several articles had been spoiled by the damp of the previous autumn. The flour had got mildewed; the chocolate had been dissolved by the damp; the pemmican was uneatable. There remained a limited quantity of fish-flour, some aleuronate flour, and some half-moulded bread, which they carefully boiled in train-oil, partly to dry it, and partly to render it more nutritious by impregnating it with fat. They also cut up as much raw bear’s flesh and blubber as they could carry. Train-oil took the place of petroleum as fuel. They still had 100 rifle-cartridges and 110 smallshot-cartridges, and their rifles were in good condition.

The hut was left on 19th May, after a short record of the journey had been deposited in a brass tube plugged at each end and hung by a wire to the roof. During the first few days they made short marches, until they again became accustomed to the work. On 22nd May they had to shelter from a snowstorm, and on the 23rd the weather was still bad, and they only went a short distance. On the 24th, Nansen narrowly escaped being drowned. While Johansen was busy with his kayak, Nansen pushed ahead to look for a camping-ground, but suddenly the ice gave way, and he found himself lying in a broad crack which had been concealed in the snow. He tried to get out again, but his snow-shoes were firmly fastened, and he was also tied by the harness to the sledge, so that he could not turn round. Fortunately, he had been able, when falling, to dig his pike-staff into the ice on the opposite side of the crack, and he held himself up by that, and lay waiting for Johansen to come up. The latter, however, had not noticed the accident, and was still busy at his sledge and kayak. Meanwhile the water was creeping farther and farther up Nansen’s body, and he began to shout for help. At last he was observed by Johansen, who arrived just in time to prevent Nansen from going completely under the water. In future the snow-shoes were not firmly attached when the ice was thought to be dangerous. From the 26th to the 28th May they were weather-bound, and after advancing a short distance on the latter date, they had again to take shelter until the 3rd of June. As provisions were now getting low, a walrus was shot, and a supply of meat and blubber thus obtained. On the 4th June they were able to launch their kayaks for the first time, and made great progress. On the 6th they had again to take to the ice, but as there was a strong north wind and the surface was favourable they were able to make good use of the sledge-sail. On the 8th they were stopped by a furious storm, and next day they had to make a long détour westwards in order to avoid treacherous ice. On the 12th they were able to sail all day long. In the evening they felt their legs stiff with sitting in the kayak all day, and they landed on the edge of the ice so that they might stretch them a little. They then wished to ascend a hummock, so that a view might be obtained over the water. After the kayaks, which were lashed together, had been moored by means of one of the braces, they ascended a hummock close by, and had been standing only a short time when Johansen raised the cry that the kayaks were adrift. A rush was made to the edge of the ice, but the kayaks were already a little way off and were drifting quickly. The position was a terrible one, for all they possessed was on board the kayaks. Nansen at once threw off some of his clothing, handed his watch to Johansen, and sprang into the icy water. He knew that if the kayaks were lost it meant death to him and his companion. At first it seemed more than doubtful whether he could manage to regain them. When he got tired, he turned over and swam on his back. At length he gained a little on the kayaks, and he redoubled his exertions. By this time Nansen felt his limbs gradually stiffening and losing all feeling. His strokes became more and more feeble, but the distance from the kayaks became shorter, and at last he was able to grasp a snow-shoe which lay across the sterns. He now tried to pull himself up, but his body was so stiff with cold that this seemed an impossibility. After a little, he managed to swing one leg up on to the edge of the sledge which lay on the deck, and then raised the rest of his body. They were saved! With some difficulty he paddled the kayaks back to Johansen, who confessed that these were the worst moments he had ever lived through. Johansen now pulled off Nansen’s wet clothes, put on the few dry ones they had in reserve, spread the sleeping-bag upon the ice, and covered Nansen with the sail and everything he could find to keep out the cold. Next day Nansen was all right again, and in the evening the journey was continued.

On 14th June great herds of walruses were met, and as meat and blubber were at a low ebb, a young one was shot. Two days afterwards, a walrus nearly turned the tables on them. It came up close beside Nansen’s kayak, threw itself on the edge of it, took hold farther over the deck with one fore-flipper, and tried to upset the frail craft. Nansen struck at its head with the paddle, while it in turn struck at the kayak with its tusks. It was only when the deck was almost under water that it suddenly disappeared. Nansen was congratulating himself on his fortunate escape, when he noticed his legs getting wet, and he had only time to run the kayak on a sunken ledge of ice when it sank. It was as well that the ice was near at hand, or the result would have been serious.

In the afternoon of the 17th June, Nansen had ascended a hummock to have a look at the land beyond. Flocks of auks were flying to and fro making a confused noise, and as Nansen listened, a sound suddenly reached his ear, so like the barking of a dog that he started. He waited for some time, listening intently, till the barking began again and there was no room for doubt. He shouted to Johansen that he heard dogs. Johansen started up from the bag where he lay sleeping, and tumbled out of the tent. He tried to hear the sound, but could only make out the noise of the birds. Nansen, however, was convinced that he heard dogs, and he prepared to make for the land, leaving Johansen to stay behind with the kayaks, so that there might be no risk of their drifting away again. He had not gone far when he observed tracks which were probably those of a dog. Then he again heard the yelping of a dog more distinctly than ever. It was with a strange mixture of feelings that he made his way towards land. Suddenly he thought he heard a shout from a human voice, and he ran up on to a hummock and hallooed with all his might. Soon he heard another shout, and saw a dark form moving among the hummocks. It was a dog, and farther off was seen a man. Nansen approached quickly and waved his hat; the man did the same. Nansen heard him speak to the dog, and recognised that the language was English. As he drew nearer, Nansen thought he recognised Mr. Jackson, whom he had once seen. They extended a hand to one another, with a hearty “How do you do?” Explanations quickly followed, and Nansen was led to Jackson’s hut at Cape Flora. Here he received a royal welcome from the members of the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition. Men were immediately sent to Johansen’s assistance, and his reception at the hut was scarcely less hospitable than Nansen’s. Their feelings may be imagined when they were able to throw off their dirty oily rags and have a hot bath, and to be able to put on clean clothes. To add to Nansen’s delight, Jackson had a packet of letters for him, and these contained only good news.

It is an interesting fact that Nansen when he arrived at Cape Flora weighed no less than 22 lb. more than when he left the Fram, and Johansen weighed 13 lb. more. Bear’s flesh had evidently agreed with them.

On a comparison of Nansen’s chronometers being made, it was found that they were not so far out as had been anticipated. They were about 26 minutes wrong, making a difference of 6½° in longitude.

The Windward, which was to bring supplies and take home some of Jackson’s party, arrived on the 26th July. By this time Nansen and Johansen began to fear that the vessel could not get through the ice and that they would have to spend another winter in the Arctic regions. News soon arrived that all was well at home, and that nothing had been heard of the Fram.

The Windward left Cape Flora on 7th August, and reached Vardo, in Norway, on the 13th. Nansen and Johansen immediately set out for the telegraph-station, and soon the news of their arrival spread over the civilised world.

On the 17th August, Nansen arrived at Hammerfest. On the 20th August, while still here, he received a telegram from Sverdrup announcing the arrival of the Fram in Norway. This filled the cup of rejoicing to overflowing. Next day the Fram was joined in Tromsö harbour, and again they were all together, well satisfied with their success.

We may now return to the voyage of the Fram after the departure of Nansen and Johansen on their sledging expedition. It then lay in 84° 4′ N. latitude, and 102° E. longitude.

Sverdrup, after carting away a great pressure-ridge from the port side of the vessel, made various preparations for a sledge-journey southward, in the event of the Fram being wrecked. Sledges, kayaks, snow-shoes, and many other articles had to be made, and this work kept all busy for a considerable time. Sverdrup considers Canadian snow-shoes superior to Norwegian ones, when it is a question of hauling heavily loaded sledges over rough ice.

During the summer of 1895 the drift was very slow; the latitude on 22nd June was 84° 32′, and on 6th September, 84° 43′. The longitude on these dates was 80° 58′ and 79° 52′ respectively. During the next three months the drift towards the west was much greater: on the 30th October the longitude was 70° 50′, on the 1st December it was 58° 45′, and on the 9th January 1896 it was 41° 41′. The meridian of 60° passing near Cape Fligely, in Franz-Josef Land, was passed towards the end of November. On the 15th November the latitude was 85° 55.5′, and on the 9th January 1896 it was down to 84° 57′.

In these high latitudes the change from sunlight during the whole twenty-four hours to darkness during the same period is very sudden. On 12th September the sun was above the horizon at midnight; on 8th October it disappeared at noon – a change from constant light to constant darkness in twenty-six days.

As early as the beginning of February 1896 numerous lanes of water were found both to the north and to the south. By this time they had drifted to the 25th degree of longitude, while the latitude kept steady at about 84° 50′. On the 15th February the longitude was 23° 28′, but by the 29th February they had gone back to 27°. After this date the drift to the west was very slow, but it was more rapid towards the south. On 16th May the latitude was 83° 45′, and the longitude 12° 50′.

For some months no animals had been seen, and the appearance of two bears on 28th February caused some excitement. When about 150 yards from the ship, they stood for a time, but as it was still very dark, Sverdrup waited in the expectation that they would come nearer. Instead of coming nearer, they went off. Pettersen was asked whether he had something to fry which would smell strongly, so as to entice the bears back. After the bears had been long out of sight, Pettersen produced a pan of fried butter and onions. Before long, the bears were seen coming back, and both were shot by Sverdrup. It was sixteen months since they last shot a bear, and during that time they had very little fresh meat.

Soundings were taken several times during the winter, but the bottom was not reached with a line over 9000 feet in length.

An interesting experiment was made on the 13th April. Scott-Hansen and Sverdrup took an observation with the theodolite, and Nordahl an observation with the sextant, on the natural horizon. According to the theodolite, the latitude was 84° 11.5′, and by the sextant 84° 13′. It had previously been ascertained that there was a difference of about two minutes between the artificial and natural horizons.

As spring advanced, the openings in the ice became larger, and preparations were made for forcing the Fram ahead as soon as the opportunity offered. Everything that was on the ice was taken on board, and on the 18th May the engine was made ready for getting up steam.

Towards the end of May blasting operations were begun to release the Fram from the ice, and on 2nd June, Sverdrup and his crew had the satisfaction of seeing the ship once more free. There was still, however, too much ice all around for the Fram to make much use of her freedom. It was not until the 12th June that a movement could be made, and then only for a short distance. On the 27th June the Fram was forced ahead about 2 miles. On the 3rd July 3 miles were made, and on the 7th about 1 mile. On the 8th July, in latitude 83° 2′, the bottom was reached at 1841 fathoms. On the 19th July the Fram made about 10 miles, and on the following day it advanced from 83° 14′ to 82° 39′. Good progress was now made, and at midnight on the 27th July latitude 81° 32′ had been reached. During the next fortnight they made little headway, and on the 9th August the latitude was found 16′ farther north than on 27th July.

On the 13th August the Fram steered through the last ice-floes into open water, north of the 80th degree of latitude.

Nansen’s expedition lifted the veil of mystery from a large portion of the Arctic regions. It proved that no land existed over the long zigzag route traversed by the Fram from the New Siberian Islands to a point north of Spitzbergen within 350 miles of the Pole, nor over the long sledge-route traversed by Nansen and Johansen. It discovered that the Polar Sea, instead of being shallow as hitherto supposed, is a deep basin, exceeding in many places 11000 feet.

The Fram drifted very near the route sketched by Nansen before the expedition set out, and although Nansen had to admit that the real force which caused the drift was the wind – an opinion previously formed by De Long from the drift of the Jeannette– this did not alter the final result.

The drift of the Fram also forcibly proves that the great mass of ice in the Polar Sea is in a constant state of movement. It was found that in the sea north of Siberia the prevailing winds were south-easterly or easterly, and therefore the drift was towards the north-west or west. On the other hand, to the north of Spitzbergen the winds are north-easterly, and the drift is to the south-west.

The manner in which the Fram drifted also allows speculations to be made as to the likelihood of the existence of land to the north of the Fram’s track. It was found that with a southerly wind the ice moved easily towards the north. This is in favour of the view that no land exists within a considerable distance to the north. The depth of water and the absence of bears during 1895 also favour this view. There is a greater probability that land may exist north of Greenland or north of Grinnell Land.1 The Fram began to drift to the south when it reached the neighbourhood of 66° E. longitude, or to the north of Franz-Josef Land. The latitude was then 85° 55.5′. It is probable, however, that the Fram was now within the direct influence of the drift which constantly passes down the east coast of Greenland, and that the drift to the south was not due to land towards the north or west. More ice is formed in the Polar Sea during the long winter than is melted during the short summer, and the surplus must find an outlet into the warmer water of the south. The ice of the Polar Sea may be compared to the ice of a mighty glacier: the surplus of both moves on until it finds an outlet, and moves in the path of least resistance. The chief and almost only outlet from the Polar Sea is between Greenland and Norway. A comparatively small amount of ice finds its way through Robeson Channel or Behring Strait. The drift of the Jeannette proves that from Behring Strait the set of the ice is towards the west and north-west. Between the longitude of Behring Strait and the longitude of the north-east of Greenland there must somewhere be a dividing-line where it will be easier for the ice to find its way east round the north of Greenland than westward over the great extent of Polar Sea. It is probable that the ice from north of latitude 84° and westward at least as far as 100° W. longitude drifts to the east round the north of Greenland, if land does not extend farther north in that direction.

The sledge-journey by Nansen and Johansen was the most daring ever undertaken. In the case of any other sledge-journey there was always a base of supplies to fall back upon; in Nansen’s case there was none. In taking only one companion with him, his daring amounted to rashness. Had any serious accident happened to one of them it would have meant the sacrifice of both lives, for it cannot be supposed for a moment that a comrade could have been deserted under any circumstances. A party of three would have been much safer, although it would have involved a larger quantity of provisions. Two men might struggle on with a disabled companion, but it would be practically impossible for one to do so.

CHAPTER XI

SVERDRUP’S EXPEDITION (1898−1902)

A few days after the return of the Fram, Sverdrup was asked by Nansen whether he wished to go on another expedition to the north. He then explained that Consul Axel Heiberg and the firm of brewers, Messrs. Ringnes Brothers, were willing to equip a new Polar expedition with Sverdrup as the leader. The offer was quickly accepted.

The route agreed upon was up Smith Sound and through Robeson Channel, and as far along the north coast of Greenland as possible before wintering. Sledge-journeys were then to be made to the northernmost point of Greenland, and as far down the east coast as could be attained.

The Norwegian Government not only gave the loan of the Fram, but granted about £1100 for necessary alterations.

It was intended to provision the Fram for two or three years, but in the end there was enough for five.

The only member of the first expedition to accompany Sverdrup was Hendriksen. The full party numbered sixteen, and included a botanist, a zoologist, and a geologist.

The Fram left Christiania on 24th June 1898, and on the 27th it left Christiansand, a course being set for the south of Greenland, which was sighted on the 17th July.

On 28th July a stop was made at Egedesminde, where it had been arranged that the Royal Greenland Trade Service would have dogs for the expedition. In Sverdrup’s opinion the two indispensable adjuncts to the carrying out of polar research are ski and dogs, and for the Eskimo dog he has a great admiration. His experience was that one man cannot manage more than eight dogs.

Egedesminde was left on the 29th July, and next day Godhavn was reached. Here, coal, water, and more dogs were taken on board, and on the 2nd August a course was shaped for Upernavik, which was reached on the 4th.

Upernavik was left behind on the 5th August, and Melville Bay was entered on the following day. Here the Fram was detained six days in the ice, and did not reach open water till the 16th.

The first place visited was Foulke Fiord, where they expected to obtain large game, but were disappointed. The Fram was next steered for Littleton Island, where records were deposited. The view of the ice from the island was not encouraging, but Sverdrup continued along the coast of Greenland. The ice, however, lay immovable close in to land, and the Fram was forced to turn back on the night of 17th August.

When abreast of Littleton Island a course was steered to Ellesmere Land, and then the coast was followed northwards; but when north of Cape Sabine the Fram was stopped by impenetrable ice. To avoid being pressed ashore, it was found necessary to anchor the Fram in the northern part of Rice Strait. For some time it was hoped that the ice would drift south and allow a passage to the north, but ultimately the party were compelled to take up winter quarters in Rice Strait.

Preparations were soon made for autumn sledging through Hayes Sound, and before the winter darkness set in it was discovered that the Sound divided into two fiords, and one of these was penetrated to its head. The valleys in this region were found to support large numbers of musk-oxen, but as Sverdrup failed to detect the flavour of musk either in the flesh or in the milk, he preferred to use the term “polar oxen.”

A more or less permanent camp was formed on the point of land where Hayes Sound divides into Beitstadfiord and Jokelfiord. It received the name of “Fort Juliana.” While Sverdrup was here on 6th October he met Peary, who was out on a sledge-journey. Peary’s ship had passed Cape Sabine on 13th August, and on the 15th had been beset off Cape Hawks, where it had to winter.

Sverdrup’s party passed the winter busily engaged in various preparations for exploration in the spring. The winter quarters were not far from Greely’s starvation-camp, but little trace of it could be found.

On the 18th March 1899 an Eskimo from Inglefield Gulf on his way to Peary’s ship paid the Fram a visit, and other Eskimo arrived during the course of the spring.

On the 19th March, when the Eskimo left the ship on his way to Peary, he was accompanied by Baumann, Sverdrup’s second in command, and by Hassel, one of the crew, who wished to visit Peary. The Windward was reached without incident, but at that time Peary himself was confined to his cabin. In February, during a sledge-journey, most of his toes were frost-bitten, and had to be amputated.

On 17th April, Sverdrup with three men left the ship to make an attempt to cross Ellesmere Land to the west coast. Two days were taken to reach Fort Juliana, which was left on 20th April. After leaving this camp, the ice was found very favourable, and a distance of 38 miles was covered during the first day. At the head of the fiord Sverdrup decided to continue the journey with Bay the zoologist, while the other two were to make a survey from the head of the fiord back to the Fram.

Sverdrup’s route now lay along the bed of a river, but in the afternoon of the first day rapids were met, and a halt had to be made so that the country ahead could be examined. By making a détour round the rapids, across some sand-hills, better travelling was found, and the ground up to the watershed was covered quickly.

Polar oxen were met in considerable numbers. When attacked, they form a square with the calves and heifers in the middle, and the bulls and cows standing in line of defence at equal distances. Sometimes the fiercest of the bulls form a kind of outpost about 25 yards distant from the square, and make individual attacks. When once the square has been formed, the animals remain at their posts until the attack is repulsed or the entire square fallen. They have developed their strategic reasoning powers to a wonderful extent.

West of the watershed the country became bare of snow, and progress was arrested by an impassable cañon. After various endeavours to find a passage for the sledges, Sverdrup decided to carry provisions for three days, and to take the dogs loose. In two days they reached a large fiord, which was named “Bay Fiord” after Sverdrup’s companion. The return journey was made without special incident.

On 23rd May, Isachsen, the cartographer of the expedition, with Braskerud, set out to cross the glaciated part of Ellesmere Land. The west coast was reached on 4th June. They found considerable difficulty on many occasions in extricating themselves and the dogs from the crevasses in the glaciers, but the journey was completed without serious accident. They reached the Fram on 2nd July.

On the 2nd June two expeditions left the ship. One was composed of Schei the geologist, and the doctor, Johan Svendsen. The other was composed of Simmons the botanist and Sverdrup. Both parties travelled together during the first day, and then separated. On the 6th June, Sverdrup and his companion were at Fort Juliana, when the other party unexpectedly arrived. The doctor had taken ill while driving up the fiord. He was made as comfortable as circumstances would allow. He was snow-blind, and also complained of pains in his chest. Sverdrup wished to take him back to the Fram, but he said he would soon get well, and he preferred to stay where he was. Two days afterwards the doctor was much better, and helped to harness the dogs and lash the loads when the rest of the party were setting out on a four-days’ trip to Beitstadfiord. The doctor said he would stay behind at Fort Juliana and employ his time in collecting insects and in shooting. They then parted, little thinking what was about to happen. On their return to camp they were horrified to find the doctor dead. The body was removed to the Fram, and then received a seaman’s funeral in Rice Strait. The doctor’s death was a great blow to the whole party, and some of the strongest did not recover from it until months afterwards.