The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole

The second death took place on 5th April. Christiansen, one of the Eskimo, had been thoroughly used up in the hunting expedition with Long, and never quite recovered. Extra food was given to him during the week previous to his death, in the hope of saving him. Lockwood had a great affection for him, and had much to say in his praise.

Deaths now followed one another quickly. Lynn became unconscious at 1 p.m. on 6th April, and died at 7 p.m. When dying he asked for water, but there was none to give him. The Isabella trip had weakened him both physically and mentally.

On the 6th April, Rice and Private Frederick started to attempt the recovery of the English beef which had to be abandoned to save Elison. They had wished to make the attempt earlier in the year, but Greely would not consent. Now, when provisions were almost gone, he agreed. Before leaving, Rice slept in the same bag containing his dead comrade Lynn, all unconscious of the fact that, in two days more, he too would pass away. The temperature when they started was 8° below zero. Next day they were confined to their bag twenty-two hours by a violent storm. They reached the place where the meat had been abandoned, but could not find it. Soon afterwards Rice showed signs of weakness. Frederick gave him some spirits of ammonia in rum, until he made some tea. Then, giving him some warm food and drink, he urged him to walk, in order to avoid freezing. His condition had now, however, become so alarming that he could not stand up, and his mind continually reverted to home, relations, and friends. Frederick stripped himself of his jumper, in which to wrap Rice’s feet. In his shirt-sleeves, sitting on the sledge, in a driving storm of wind and snow, he held his dying comrade in his arms for several hours, until he passed away. The feelings of Frederick may be imagined; his sleeping-bag had been left some miles away, and to reach it he must struggle against a cutting blast filled with drifting snow. Recovering strength by sleep and a little food, he returned 6 miles to cover his comrade with snow and ice. In returning to the camp at Cape Sabine, he dragged his sledge as far as his feebleness would permit, then took a little food, and getting into his bag, drank a spoonful of ammonia and rum, which enabled him to sleep. As soon as he awoke, he travelled on as before. In this way he hauled everything back to the camp, even including Rice’s rations. It may truly be said that Rice laid down his life for his comrades. On several other occasions he had ventured it, especially on his extraordinary trips to Isabella, and towards Littleton Island. Rice’s death deeply affected the party.

On the same day that this tragedy was being enacted on the ice, Lockwood breathed his last in the hut at Cape Sabine. Since the beginning of the year he had been extremely weak, but lingered on till the 9th of April. He was the most distinguished man of the party, his explorations having been the main achievements of the expedition. His name will remain in Arctic history.

“Jewell is much weaker to-day,” were the last words Lockwood wrote. This was on the 7th April, and on the 12th Jewell died. On the 11th, Brainard fortunately shot a bear, which probably saved the lives of some of the party; and on the following day Long shot a small seal. On the 13th the ration was increased to a pound of meat daily. On the 20th it had to be reduced to 10 oz. Towards the end of April, Greely was seriously ill, and in danger of dying. Henry, taking advantage of his illness, stole alcohol, and became hopelessly drunk.

On the 29th April, Jens and Long were out hunting, and watched a seal lying on an isolated floe. They hoped the floe would drift in to the fast ice, but after a long delay, Jens decided to try and reach it in his kayak. He crossed one lead, dragged his kayak across the ice, and entered a second. Long, who was looking on, saw Jens suddenly begin to paddle rapidly, and the next moment the kayak began to sink. Jens made an effort to get up on the ice, but it was new and could not bear his weight, and he was drowned. The kayak was probably cut when being dragged over the ice.

On the 3rd of May the last of the bread was used, and only nine days’ meat remained. On the 6th a violent scene took place between Greely and Dr. Pavy regarding the doctor’s reports. On the 12th, Greely decided to divide the last of the regular rations, as he was afraid that one or two of the worst men of the party might appropriate the remaining food, which was only sufficient to last till the 15th of May.

The want of provisions rapidly told on the starved men. Ellis died on the 19th, Ralston on the 23rd, and Whisler on the 24th. They now tried to feed on saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia). On the 24th they had for dinner a handful of saxifrage, two or three spoonfuls of shrimps, and a pint and a half of tea. On the 26th there was a severe storm, which prevented Brainard going to obtain shrimps, and in consequence stews had to be made of the seal-skin thongs used for lashing the sledge.

Sergeant Israel, the astronomer, died on the 27th May. At the beginning of June, fourteen of the party were still alive, but did not expect to live long, unless the hunters were more fortunate or relief came quickly. On the 1st June they had a breakfast of shrimps and seaweed after a fast of thirty-four hours. Lieutenant Kislingbury died at 3 p.m. He was the only one of the party known by Greely before contemplating Arctic work. Although he had trouble with him at the commencement of their work at Conger, Greely acknowledged that he was a hard-working officer, and that he never spared himself in labours which would add to the personal comfort of others.

Salor died on 4th June. On this date, Greely, against the doctor’s advice, decided to try to eat tripe de Roche. As Henry had been found stealing again, he was cautioned by Greely that he would come to grief if he did not stop it. Greely also gave written orders to Brainard, Frederick, and Long that if Henry was again caught stealing he was to be shot. Next day Frederick detected Henry stealing shrimps, and Greely found that he had been stealing seal-skin thongs contrary to positive orders. He was ordered to be shot, Greely giving the order in writing. It was carried out the same day.

On the 6th June, Dr. Pavy drank about 3 oz. of extract of ergot, having evidently mistaken it for a preparation of iron. He died the same day at 6 p.m., and Bender fifteen minutes before him. Greely states that Dr. Pavy was a man of fine education, polished manners, and great Arctic ambition. His medical skill was great, and contributed much to the general welfare of the party during the last winter. He thought, however, that his previous Bohemian life unfitted him for duty where his actions were subject to restriction or limitation from others.

For breakfast on the 7th all the shrimps were eaten, and everybody began collecting reindeer-moss, tripe de Roche, and saxifrage. On the 11th June the party obtained a guillemot, and a second went to the hunters. Next day the nets for catching shrimps were lost through the floes breaking up. Gardiner appeared to be dead at 11 a.m. of this day, and was carried from the tent in which the party had been living for some time; but later he showed signs of life, and did not die until 5 p.m.

On 13th June, Greely issued to the party his seal-skin jumper for dinner. He also divided between them the dirty, oil-tanned covering of his sleeping-bag. Schneider died on 18th June.

Near midnight of the 22nd the whistle of a ship was heard. At first the party could hardly believe their ears. Brainard went to the brow of the hill, but no ship was to be seen. The party had resigned themselves to despair, when suddenly strange voices were heard, and they realised that they were saved. During the forty-two hours prior to their rescue a few square inches of soaked seal-skin was all the nutriment they received.

No relief or expeditionary vessels ever before ventured at so early a date the dangers of Melville Bay. Congress had offered a reward of 25000 dollars for the first information regarding the expedition, and this had an important bearing on the rescue. The Scotch whalers set forth on their voyage many days earlier than was customary, and there was a friendly rivalry in the search between them and the American vessels in charge of Captain Schley, who, profiting by their experience and advice, won in the race for Cape Sabine.

Of the twenty-five men of the party eighteen had died. The living were: Greely, Brainard, Long, Frederick, Bierderbick, Connell, and Elison. It was found necessary, however, to perform secondary amputation in the case of Elison, and he died at Godhavn on the 8th of July.

As regards the responsibility for the great disaster which overtook this expedition, Greely admitted that, although not under orders to do so, he should have done more than arrange for a retreat to Cape Sabine in the event of not being reached at Conger. But little blame can be attached to him for this omission. It is easy to criticise after the event, but it seemed in the highest degree improbable that, if he could not be reached at Conger, there would be the least difficulty in the relief ships leaving sufficient supplies at Cape Sabine or other point on the west coast.

The disaster can be traced in the first place to the instructions given to Greely to abandon the station and retreat to the south in the event of no relief ship reaching him. It would have been much better to have left this question to Greely’s discretion. If the party had remained at Conger another winter, it is highly probable that no disaster would have occurred.

In the second place, the chief responsibility undoubtedly lay with those who had charge of the relief. A ship was sent north in 1882, and failed in its mission; but instead of leaving its stores, or even part of its stores, at some point likely to be reached by Greely, those in command took the incredible course of returning south with the stores intact.

In 1883 those in authority must have known that absolutely nothing had been done in 1882, and that in the event of a failure to reach Conger taking place in 1883, Greely would certainly retreat southwards. One would therefore have expected that all possible precautions would be taken to insure the safety of the expedition. The possible wreck of one of the relief ships should have been arranged for, and steps taken to insure that sufficient supplies would not only be left at Littleton Island, but at some point on the west coast.

Serious responsibility was incurred by Lieutenant Garlington when he made the written statement that everything in the power of man would be done to relieve the expedition. All through the horrors of the winter nearly the whole of Greely’s party believed to the last that a relieving party was at Littleton Island watching the first favourable opportunity to cross the Sound.

The whole arrangements for the relief ended in a gigantic muddle, and while nothing was done to lend assistance, Greely’s party were induced by fair promises to camp in a practically barren region.

This expedition, and others which had preceded it, gave little encouragement to Americans to continue Arctic exploration, although the results achieved had been important. Kane lost the Advance; his party had to undergo great privations, and had ultimately to retreat in boats. The Polaris was lost, and many of the members of the expedition had to suffer greatly. De Long lost the Jeannette, and a large number of his party met a terrible fate; and now Greely’s expedition was the climax of them all.

CHAPTER X

THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION (1893−96)

In many respects this expedition is unique. It was planned by Dr. Nansen after careful consideration of many scientific facts connected with the Polar Sea, and although his theories and conclusions were opposed by many of the leading authorities of the day, the expedition was carried out almost to the letter.

The Jeannette expedition had a very important bearing on that of Dr. Nansen. In 1884, Professor Mohn published a paper in which it was stated that various articles which must have come from the wreck of the Jeannette had been found on the south-west coast of Greenland. He believed that they must have drifted on a floe right across the Polar Sea. These articles included a list of provisions signed by De Long, the commander of the Jeannette; an MS. list of the Jeannette’s boats; and a pair of oilskin breeches marked “Louis Noros,” the name of one of the Jeannette’s crew who was saved.

It occurred to Dr. Nansen that a ship might be allowed to be frozen in the ice and to drift as the articles from the Jeannette must have done. This idea was propounded in an address before the Christiania Geographical Society on 18th February 1890.

In this address Dr. Nansen brought forward various evidences in support of the theory that a current flows across or near the North Pole from Bering Sea on the one side to the Atlantic Ocean on the other. A “throwing-stick” used by the Alaskan Eskimo in hurling their bird-darts had been found among the drift-timber on the west coast of Greenland. It was also known that the driftwood that is carried down by the polar current along the east coast of Greenland and up the west coast consists largely of wood from the coast of Siberia.

After discussing the various possible routes by which this drift might take place, Dr. Nansen came to the conclusion that a current flows at some point between the Pole and Franz-Josef Land from the Siberian Arctic Sea to the east coast of Greenland.

Nansen’s plan was to build a ship as strong as possible, so as to enable it to withstand the pressure of the ice. The sides were to slope sufficiently to prevent the ice, when it presses together, from getting firm hold of the hull, as was the case with the Jeannette and other vessels. Nansen’s idea was that the ice, instead of nipping the ship, must raise it out of the water.

The Fram was built on the principles suggested by Nansen: its sides were from 24 to 28 inches in thickness, of solid water-tight wood. The inside of the ship was also shored up and strengthened in every possible way. The equipment was of the best, and special attention was devoted to the commissariat; most of the provisions were soldered down in tins, as a protection against damp.

The members of the expedition numbered thirteen. Several places were visited in passing up the coast of Norway, and the party received a great reception. Norway was left at Vardo; and about four days afterwards, on the 27th July 1893, ice was met with.

It was Nansen’s intention to pass through Yugor Strait and make his way along the coast until he reached the New Siberian Islands, and then up the west coast of these as far as possible before he allowed the Fram to be frozen in.

At Khabarova, Yugor Strait, thirty-four dogs which had been sent there by previous arrangement were obtained. Some days were spent here in making repairs, shifting coal, etc. A ship loaded with coal was to meet the Fram here, but turned up two days late, having been delayed by ice. The Fram left Khabarova on 5th August, and after careful navigation in a fog, succeeded in passing through the Yugor Strait into the Kara Sea. Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Asia, was reached on the 10th September. On the 12th September two walruses were shot and secured. On the 18th September the course was shaped northwards, to the west of the New Siberian Islands, and the Fram had a straight run until the 20th September, when it was stopped by ice near latitude 78°. The edge of the ice was now followed towards the north-west, and about 78½° was reached. On the 24th September they found that the ship was being frozen in. An observation taken on the 29th gave latitude 79° 5′. By 8th November they had drifted as far south as 77° 43′; on the 19th November they were north to 78° 27′; and on the 23rd November they reached 79° 11′, which was the highest yet reached. On the 27th November an altitude of Jupiter was taken, and the latitude found to be 78° 36′, from which it was believed that a mistake had been made on the 23rd. By the end of the year they were not much farther north; sometimes the drift was one way and sometimes the other. Several bears made their appearance and were shot; foxes were also seen.

As early as 15th January 1894, Nansen began to speculate about the possibility of leaving the ship and making a sledge-journey over the ice towards the Pole, but he decided to first wait and see the result of the drift. On one point Nansen’s calculations had proved incorrect: he had presupposed a shallow Polar Sea in which all currents would have a strong influence. Instead of this, it was found in latitude 79° that with a line of 1000 fathoms the bottom could not be reached. The greatest depth hitherto found in these regions was 80 fathoms.

It was not until the 1st of February 1894 that the 80th degree of latitude was reached. On the 6th of April a remarkable event took place, which had been looked forward to with lively interest. It was an eclipse of the sun. Hansen, who had charge of the astronomical observations, calculated that the eclipse would begin at 12.56. It really was seen to begin 7½ seconds later than the time calculated. This proved the chronometers to be in excellent order. Four bears made their appearance on 8th April; none had been seen during the three previous months. The 81st degree of latitude was reached about 17th May 1894, and the 82nd not until the 31st October 1894.

On the 5th of November a curious incident happened, and is worth mentioning. One of the young dogs was heard howling fearfully on deck. It was found to have touched an iron bolt with its tongue, and was frozen fast to it. The poor beast was straining to get free, with its tongue stretched out so far that it looked like a thin rope proceeding out of its throat. The bolt was heated by means of the hand, and the puppy then managed to get the tongue free.

On 16th November, Nansen elaborated his plan for the sledge-journey towards the Pole in the spring of 1895. He made his calculations from the 83rd degree of latitude, and he expected that the Fram would reach a higher latitude than this. The distance to the Pole from this latitude is 483 English miles. Nansen thought it reasonable to expect that this distance could be covered in fifty days, which would give about 9½ miles a day. The expedition was to consist of twenty-eight dogs, and two men, with 2100 lb. of provisions and equipments. Nansen calculated that in fifty days the dogs would consume 1400 lb. of pemmican, allowing a pound a day for each dog. Two pounds of provisions daily for each man was allowed. In returning, he intended to make for either the Seven Islands, north of Spitzbergen, or Cape Fligely in Franz-Josef Land, according to circumstances. Setting out on the 1st of March, he expected to reach the Pole at the end of April, and have about 500 lb. of provisions left for the return journey. This would not allow anything for the dogs, so it was intended to kill some to feed the others. Allowing for the gradual reduction of weight on the return journey, Nansen calculated that Cape Fligely should be reached about the 1st of June. From here he would decide whether to return along the north-west coast of Franz-Josef Land by Gillis Land towards North-East Island and Spitzbergen, or south through Austria Sound towards the south coast of Franz-Josef Land, and thence to Novaya Zemlya or Spitzbergen.

Nansen decided that Johansen should be his companion. He was a lieutenant in the Reserve, and was so eager to go in the Fram that, as no other post could be found for him, he accepted that of stoker. He afterwards assisted Hansen in taking scientific observations.

On 20th November, Nansen delivered an address to the whole ship’s company, in which he announced his determination to make the sledge-journey. Preparations were now made in earnest. During the summer Nansen had already begun to make a kayak, the frame of which was of bamboo carefully lashed together. When completed, the framework weighed 16 lb. It was afterwards covered with sail-cloth, when the whole boat weighed 30 lb. It was 12 feet long, 28 inches wide in the middle, and 12 inches deep. Another kayak was made with a depth of 15 inches. These kayaks were chiefly intended for crossing over channels and open spaces in the ice, and coasting along possible land. They were essentially like Eskimo kayaks, full-decked, save for an aperture in the middle for a man to sit in. This aperture was encircled by a wooden ring, after the Eskimo fashion, over which the lower part of the seal-skin jacket could be adjusted so that the junction between boat and jacket was water-tight. Besides this aperture in the middle, there were small trap-doors fore and aft in the deck, for the convenience of stowing provisions. Two sledges were made about the same length as the kayaks.

On 12th December 1894 it was found that the Fram had attained a higher latitude than had ever before been reached by a ship, the observation giving 82° 30′. A great feast was held in its honour.

On the 3rd of January 1895 the Fram received such an alarming pressure from the ice that all preparations had to be made in case the ship would have to be abandoned. By the 6th of January the ice became quiet, and the danger was over. On this day the latitude was found to be 83° 34′, so that the expedition had now reached the most northern latitude; the record of Lockwood had been beaten.

Preparations for the long sledge-journey were now hastened. Bolsters filled with pemmican and dried-liver pie were made to fit the sledges and form a bed on which the kayaks were to rest. These bolsters when filled weighed from 100 to 120 lb. each. Three sledge-sails were made of very light calico, and were about 7 feet 2 inches broad by 4 feet 4 inches long; they were made so that two of them might be laced together and used as one sail for a double sledge.

On 26th February, Nansen and Johansen left the ship along with five of their companions who were to accompany them a short distance. During the first day, however, one of the sledges broke down seriously, and the whole party returned to the ship, so that all the sledges might be strengthened.

On 28th February a start was again made, with six sledges instead of four. A broad board was fitted lengthwise to the sledge, underneath the cross-bars, so as to protect them against projecting pieces of ice. They had not proceeded far from the ship when Nansen came to the conclusion that the load was too heavy, and several sacks with food for the dogs were left behind. On the 3rd of March, Nansen again decided to return to the ship. The progress made with six sledges was unsatisfactory, and the cold was severe.

On the 14th of March they left the Fram for the third and last time. As regards clothing, Nansen had on the upper part of the body two woollen shirts; outside these a camel’s-hair coat, and last of all a thick rough jersey. Instead of the jersey, Johansen wore an “anorak” of thick homespun, provided with a hood. On the legs they had, next the skin, woollen drawers, and over these knickerbockers and loose gaiters of close Norwegian homespun. To protect them from wind and fine-driven snow, they wore a suit made of a thin, close kind of cotton canvas, and consisting of an upper garment to pull over the head, provided with a hood, and a lower one in the shape of a pair of wide overalls. Instead of wearing long stockings, Nansen preferred to use loose stocking-legs and socks, as these were more easily dried on the chest when asleep at night. For travelling over snow in a low temperature, Nansen recommends Finn shoes. They are warm and strong, are always flexible, and very easy to put on and take off. They must, however, be made of the skin of the hind-legs of the reindeer buck. In milder weather they had leather boots of the “komager” type, made of under-tanned ox-hide, with soles of the skin of the blue seal. Inside the Finn shoes they used “sennegraes,” or sedge grass, which absorbs moisture and keeps the feet dry.

On their hands they wore ordinary woollen mittens, and above these large gloves of wolf-skin, neither of them having divisions for the fingers.

On their heads they wore felt hats, which shaded the eyes from the dazzling light, and were not so pervious to the wind as an ordinary woollen cap would be. Outside the hat they generally had one or two hoods of cloth.