The Progress of Ethnology

The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west, and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers, was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region never previously explored by a man of science."

"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M. Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of underwood and birch trees" In his return journey, he examined the frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to either Emperor.

In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below the surface, the cold is 2° 4" Réaumur, and that it is probable the frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet! Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions, and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M. Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation. He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40', indigenous plants, requiring less warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!" This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to climatological and local conditions.

In regard to the mammoths, the fossil bones of which have been found in Siberia, M. Middendorff has shown that, in accordance with the views of Professor Owen, (who states that these quadrupeds were specially organized to live on the branches and leaves of such shrubs and trees as grow in boreal latitudes) there are still trees in latitude 72° which would suffice for their sustenance.

The Ethnology of this region has been elucidated by our traveller, who by investigating the languages and physical characteristics of these remote tribes, has been enabled to affiliate them with their parent stocks.

Our knowledge of the geology and geography of the northern and southeastern extremities of Siberia have been greatly extended by this journey; in fact no enquiry for the advancement of science and a knowledge of this far distant and hitherto unknown region, seems to have been neglected.95

Another scientific expedition of an Ethnological character is employed in Siberia under the direction of M. Castren, who has devoted much of his first report to the geography of the country. After speaking of the river Irtisch and its fisheries, he gives some account of the Ostiaks, the most ancient people of its banks. Surrounded by Russians and Tartars, they have lost all their nationality except their language. The Tartar influence is feeble, but that of Russia is felt in their religion, their manners, their customs and even in their general mode of thinking.

A paper containing "Ethnological Notes on Siberia," by Prof. Von Middendorff, was read at the late meeting of the British Association for the advancement of science. "In this paper, the geographical boundaries of the different tribes were set forth, the tribes were enumerated and some of the characteristic peculiarities described. The 1st, was the Ostiaks; these were stated to be of Finnish origin, on both physiological and philological evidence. 2d, the Samoiedes, who were of Mongol descent. 3rd, the Tunguses. 4th, the Yakuts; the extent to which Mongol features were found in a nation speaking a language akin to Turkish, was insisted on. 5th, the Yukagins; the physical peculiarities of which placed them along with the Samoiedes. 6th, the Ainos; these were the inhabitants of the Kinule islands at the mouth of the Arnus; of these there were two types, the Finnish and the Japanese. 7th, the Kachkell; these were only known through the Ainos."

A geographical Society has lately been founded at St. Petersburg, to which the emperor proposed to give ten thousand silver rubles annually. The first great exploratory expedition under the directions and patronage of this Society will be directed along the eastern flank of the Ural mountains, from the parallel of 60° north (Bogoslafsk) to the Glacial sea. This survey is to be conducted by Count A. Von Keyserling, already known to the public through his valuable geological co-operation in the work on Russia, by Sir R.I. Murchison; and who by his sound acquirements in geology, zoology and geography, will it is presumed, during the ensuing three years, throw great additional light on the wild Arctic Ural which separates Europe from Asia, and which, inhabited by Ostiaks and Samoiedes, extends beyond the limits of arboreal vegetation. Among numerous other objects, it is hoped that this expedition will elicit new results concerning the entombment and preservation of the mammoths.96

India. The obstacles which have existed in India, and which have retarded the extension of European civilization, will now be effectually removed by the noble step taken by Lord Hardinge, the Governor General, for promoting education in that country.97 This benevolent and excellent man, whose well earned laurels on the field of battle are not more honorable than his philanthropic efforts in extending education among the natives of India, and in improving their social condition, "has directed the Council of Education and other authorities charged with the duty of superintending public instruction throughout the provinces subject to the government of Bengal, to submit returns of the students who may be fitted according to their degrees of merit and capacity, for such of the various public offices, as with reference to their age, abilities and other circumstances, they may be deemed qualified to fill." As this order recognizes no distinction of schools, or castes, or religion, it will have a great influence on the people, towards inducing them to give their children the benefit of a good education, which to a great extent must be obtained through the Christian missionaries. "It is," says the Friend of India, "the most powerful impulse which the cause of education has received during the last twenty-five years. It makes the seminaries the nursery of the service, and the service the stimulant of the seminaries. It introduces the enlightened principles adopted by European governments, of recruiting the public service in every department from those who have earned distinctions in the public schools. At the same time it will be found instrumental in the highest degree in the general elevation of the country. It will transplant into the interior that European knowledge and science which has hitherto been confined to Calcutta, and diffuse their influence through every district."

The renunciation of idolatry must necessarily follow the first steps in this great work of reform, and we already see it noticed that in southern India, within the short period of three months, eight hundred and thirty-two persons renounced idolatry and embraced Christianity. This large number was a part of the population of seven villages.98

Such changes are not without their effects on the great mass of the natives, indeed it is only by removing from their minds the gross superstition in which they have been for ages immersed, that there can be a hope of improving their social condition. The wealthy Hindoos cling to their ancient religion with greater tenacity as it totters towards its downfall, than when in its most flourishing state. Alarmed at the innovations which European civilization and Christianity have made, they are printing by subscription, a series of popular religious books in monthly numbers, on their doctrines, rites, superstitions and idolatry. Fearing that the Europeans and such as have been taught to observe these things with ridicule, might controvert them, they have confined the subscription to Hindoos, and have directed that their books shall be rigidly kept from the hands of Christians.

The Mahommedans too, in Bengal, are greatly alarmed at the danger to which their religion is exposed. They have prepared tracts and books in opposition to Christianity, and have sent, or are sending emissaries in every direction, with a view to strengthen the tottering cause of their false prophet.99 A Mahommedan merchant in Bombay has printed at his own expense, two thousand copies of the Koran for gratuitous distribution, at a cost of several thousand dollars.

In former times the efforts of the missionaries were directed to proselyting among the Hindoos and other idolaters of the East, without first making themselves acquainted with the fabric which they were laboring so earnestly to demolish. Nursed and educated as the natives were in the doctrines and superstitions which for ages their forefathers had venerated and professed, the efforts of the missionaries and of others who labored to improve their condition were unattended with success – and a conflict between Oriental and European civilization – between Hindooism and Christianity – between the false science of the shastres and the enlightenment of Europe, for a long time existed; and it seemed doubtful whether truth or falsehood would triumph. Now, the system is changed, and a course is pursued which bids fair to produce the most wonderful effects on the people of India and China.

It has been asserted that the missionary enterprise in India was a failure, and did not warrant the large sums expended there. Those who are unfriendly to the cause do not see that more than half the amount there expended was for educating the people, for improving their social condition, for translating valuable books into their various languages and for establishing among them that mighty engine of civilization and reform, the printing press.100

But it is not merely in the translation and distribution of these books, that the missionaries have rendered so much service. In this labor it is true they have contributed greatly towards disseminating Christian truth and useful knowledge among a large class of people, and have improved their religious, their moral and their social condition. But to Europe and to the learned world they have also furnished a vast deal of philological knowledge, elucidating and developing languages scarcely known beyond the precincts of the several countries in which they were spoken. Many of these languages, too, were previously unwritten; and from this rude state the missionaries have trained and moulded them into forms adapted to written speech.

While speaking of the labors of the missionaries in the East, I should do great injustice to Catholics not to speak of their efforts to improve the moral and religious condition of the people in these distant countries. In the most barbarous and secluded portions of the earth do we find these devoted men diligently laboring to elevate the condition of the natives. In many do we see a zeal and devotedness, an endurance of hardships, of the most severe privations, and often martyrdom itself, which has never been surpassed in the annals of missionary enterprise. Neither François Xavier, nor Ignatius Loyola, so famous among the pioneers of the Eastern missions, ever exhibited a greater zeal or devotedness than we now witness among the Catholic missionaries in Thibet, China, Corea, the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Oceanica. They too have added much to our stock of knowledge of the inhabitants, their manners and customs, and their languages. Their narratives give us particular accounts of the productions of the countries in which they reside, their trade, commerce, and all that interests us.

Siam. An interesting fact connected with the progress of European civilization, and the extension of Christianity in the kingdom of Siam, seems deserving of notice in this place. It was communicated by the American Mission in that country.

"The king of Siam despatched one of his ships to Ceylon about the close of last year, to carry back some Ceylonese Boodhists whom he had invited to Siam, two or three years before, and also to send a fresh ecclesiastical embassy to that island – regarded by all Boodhists as very sacred – to make further religious researches in the primitive nursery of their faith. That embassy fulfilled its mission, and returned to Siam in June, bringing a letter to his Majesty from a high priest of Boodh in Ceylon, written in English, and stating in substance, that the religion of Boodh had become almost extinct in Ceylon, chiefly through the influence of the Christian religion, and the schools and seminaries of the missionaries and English residents in that part of the world; and that, if some aid from abroad could not be obtained to prop up crumbling Boodhism in that island, it must soon become utterly extinct. The writer expressed much pain at the thought, that the very birth place of his religion should not have some permanent witness of it; and requested that his Majesty, in his pious zeal for Boodhism, would send him funds, with which he might build a Wat (Religious house) and support priests in honor of his god. He suggested that this would be a noble work for a great king, and one that would confer upon him the highest honors of Boodhism."101

The following list embraces the recent works on India.

Travels in the Kashmir and the Punjab; containing a particular account of the Sikhs. From the German of Baron Hugel, with notes by Major Jervis, royal 8vo. London, 1846.

The Punjaub; being a brief account of the country of the Sikhs, its extent, history, commerce, productions, religion, &c., to the recent campaign of the Sutelege. By Lt. Col. Steinbach, post, 8vo. London, 1846.

A Peep into Turkistan; by Capt. R. Burslem, 8vo. London, 1846.

Travels in the Punjab, Affghanistan and Turkistan, to Balk, Bokhara and Herat, by Mohan Lal, 8vo. London, 1846.

History of the Punjab, and of the rise, progress and present condition of the Sikhs, 2 vols. post, 8vo. London, 1846.

The history of the Sikhs, with a personal narrative of the war between the British and the Sikhs. By W.L. McGregor, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1847.

The Sikhs and Affghans, immediately before and after the death of Runjeet Singh. By Shahamat Ali, post, 8vo. London, 1847.

The Hindoo Castes; or history, manners and customs of the 42 castes or sects of the Brahmins of British India, with highly colored plates: By E.A. Rodriguez, 24 numbers.

COCHIN-CHINA, CHINA, MANCHURIA, COREA, AND JAPAN

Cochin-China. M. Hedde has published a few notices of a visit to Turon in Annam in 1844, on his passage from Singapore to Macao.102 He represents the country as altogether in a wretched, declining condition, misgoverned and beggared by despotic officers, presenting a painful contrast in its general prosperity with the Chinese empire. The present monarch is named Thieufri (or Yuen-fuh-siuen in Chinese) and succeeded his father Ming-ming or Minh-menh in 1841, but no improvement in the domestic or foreign administration of the government has taken place. Several Cochin-Chinese youth have been educated at Singapore, and the king purchased two steamers several years ago from the Dutch, but the natives probably were too little acquainted with the machinery and motive power to make the least use of them, as nothing has since been heard of them. The country is highly favored by its natural advantages and navigable rivers for maintaining a large population, but oppression on the part of the rulers and ignorance among the people, vitiate the sources of national prosperity. The port of Turon alone, is open in Annam for foreign trade, but no American vessels have been there for a cargo since Lieut. White's unsuccessful voyage in the Franklin in 1804. Capt. Percival of the U.S. ship Constitution anchored there in May, 1845, but no official account of his visit has been published, which if the rumors of his firing upon the town are true, is not strange. The Peacock and Enterprize also anchored there in 1836, but Mr. Roberts, the American diplomatic agent, was too ill to have any communications with the authorities.

China. The late war between England and China has directed the attention of other nations towards that empire in an unusual degree. Except the immediate details of the contest and the personal incidents connected with it, however, the works of those officers who have written upon that war, have not contained so much information as was expected by some, but quite as much as could be collected under the circumstances. The war was almost wholly a maritime one, confined to attacks upon cities and forts upon the coast and rivers, by both the army and navy, and few or none of the officers were acquainted with the language of the people, so that little information could be obtained from those natives whom suspicion or terror did not drive away. The region around Ningpo, Chusan and the mouth of the Yangtsz kiang, has been described with more minuteness than any other part of the maritime provinces; and the careful survey of the coast from Amoy to Shanghai, with the Chusan and Pescadore archipelagoes by Captains Collinson, and Kellet and others, has left little to be done for the navigator's benefit, in making known the hydrography of this part of China. The general topography of China is, however, but little better known now than it was at the close of the general survey of the Jesuits in 1714, and their maps form the basis of the best extant.

The embassy sent by the French government in 1844, under M. Th. de Lagrené, to form a commercial treaty with China, was furnished on a most liberal scale with everything necessary to make the greatest improvement of the opportunities offered to examine into the mechanical arts and productions of the land. Four gentlemen were attached to the ambassador's suite, to make inquiries into the various agricultural and mechanical arts of the Chinese, one of whom, M. Isidore Hedde, was especially designated to investigate everything relating to the growth and preparation of silk. In pursuance of this object, he visited the city of Tuchan fu, which lies a few miles northwest of Shanghai, and is the capital of the province of Kiangsu. This place is probably the second or third city in the empire, Canton or Hangchau fu being the only ones which can compete with it for wealth and beautiful manufactures. It lies in a highly cultivated region, and is connected with Peking and other large places, through the Grand canal and the Yangtsz kiang. M. Hedde went in a Chinese dress, and succeeded in visiting the principal buildings in the city, such as the provincial mint, the hall of examination, an establishment for the education of unhappy females destined for sale for the amusement of the opulent, and some manufactories. The suburbs of Suchau, as is the case with most Chinese cities, exceed that part within the walls, and here he found most of the craftsmen in iron, ivory, gold, silver, wood, bone, horn, glass, earth, paper, cotton and silk. His errand being chiefly to examine the silken fabrics, he noticed whatever was peculiar in spinning, dyeing and weaving, in the shops he entered. The Chinese have no such immense establishments as are found in this country, where large buildings accommodate an immense quantity of machinery and numerous workmen, but all their products are made by manual labor in small establishments. M. Hedde was struck with the immense population of the city and its environs, including a floating suburb of great extent, the whole comprising a population of not far from two millions. The Chinese census gives an average of over nine hundred souls to a square mile in the province of Kiangsu, and every opportunity which has been offered for examining it, has added new evidence to the truth of this statement, though closer investigation and further travel is necessary before we can give implicit reliance to the assertions made on this subject.

Two English missionaries have lately gone long journeys into the interior, but as Protestants have no coadjutors among the people away from the ports, who would be willing to receive and conceal them; and as their system of operations aims rather to impart a true knowledge of Christianity than to make many converts to a form of worship, these excursions have not been frequently made. One of the two here referred to, was across the country from Ningpo to Canton, by the same route Lord Macartney came, and the other was up the Yangtsz kiang. Two American missionaries visited the large city of Changchau fu near Amoy in 1844, where they were received with civility though not with kindness.

Mr. Robert Fortune, sent out to China by the Horticultural Society, has lately returned to England, with new plants of great beauty, and a large collection of botanical and ornithological specimens, among which are doubtless many not heretofore described. Mr. Fortune visited all the ports, and made excursions in their neighborhoods, and his reception among the people was generally kind. The people in the cities of Ningpo and Shanghai, and their vicinities, compare favorably for their kindness and general courtesy, with the coarse mannered natives of Canton.

The opening of this great empire to the commercial enterprise of western nations, has given rise to anticipations of an extensive trade, and the importation of cotton and woolen fabrics during the last few years has been increasing; and if it was not for the abominable traffic in opium, which is both impoverishing and destroying the Chinese, there would be every reason for believing the commerce with China would soon be one of the largest branches of trade. The principal articles in which it is most likely to increase are tea and silk, but there is a great assortment of other productions, which can be taken in exchange for the cloths, metals and wares of the west. Mr. Montgomery Martin for a short time colonial treasurer of Hongkong, has collected all the statistics bearing on this subject in his work, which will aid in forming an opinion on this point. Commercially, politically and religiously, the Chinese empire now presents a most interesting spectacle, and the experiment of regenerating it and introducing it into the family of nations, without completely disorganizing its present form of government and society, will constantly go on and attract still more and more the notice of Christendom. The probabilities at present are in favor of a successful issue, but it is impossible to contemplate the desolating effects of the use of opium, brought to the people in such quantities, without great apprehension as to the result. The lava like progress of the power of Great Britain in Asia, has just commenced on the borders of China, and when the country is drained of specie in payment for this drug, there is reason to fear that the native government will be unable to carry on its operations and maintain its authority.

Corea. Since the extermination of the Catholic priests from Corea in 1839, the most rigid measures have been adopted to exclude all foreigners; in fact, the determination on the part of the government of Corea to prevent all intercourse between its people and those of other countries seems to have been adopted from its neighbor of Japan. These measures are even extended to the Chinese, against whom a strong natural antipathy exists, growing out of the persecutions formerly inflicted on the Coreans by them. Accurate descriptions of Europeans are kept at the various posts on the frontier, and from their well known characteristics they are easily distinguished. The Coreans themselves on leaving their country for China for purposes of trade, receive a passport, which on returning must be given back or they are not permitted to enter. Many Christians still remain in Corea, and though they are subject to persecution, the minds of the people are well disposed towards the Christian religion. The literary class hold it in the highest estimation, and seem only to be waiting for the moment when they will be free to declare in its favor.103