The Progress of Ethnology

Farther accounts from this country have lately appeared in the Annals of the Propaganda Society,104 in a letter from Keemay Kim a native of Corea, and a Christian, who had just completed his studies at Macao in China. He was sent on a mission to the Christians in Corea, but owing to the vigilance observed on the frontiers of that country, was unable to enter it. Determined to persevere in the attempt, he posted on to Hoong-tchoong, a small frontier town near the mouth of a river which separates Corea from Manchuria, where he waited until the period arrived when the great fair was to take place at Kee-eu-Wen, the nearest town in Corea, four leagues distant. "They supply the Coreans with dogs, cats, pipes, leather, stag's horns, copper, horses, mules and asses; and receive in exchange, baskets, kitchen utensils, rice, corn, swine, paper, mats, oxen, furs and small horses." A few officers are permitted to trade every year, but they are closely guarded. All others who pass the frontier are made slaves or massacred at once. Our traveller here met a few Corean Christians in the immense crowd which had come to traffic, and whom he recognised by a badge previously agreed upon; but so great was the confusion and hurry on the occasion, added to the fear of being recognized, that the interview does not seem to have been productive of good, or increased our information of the people or country. Since the great persecution a few years since, the church had been at rest; and though a few converts had been made, the faithful had retired to the southern provinces for better security. They still entertained the idea of introducing a European missionary through the north, though with the knowledge that if discovered by the authorities, instant death would follow. Such is the zeal and perseverance with which these men pursue their philanthropic and Christian labors.

The fair to which allusion has been made, is thus described by our Corean. The traders cannot begin their operations until a signal is given, by hoisting a flag and beating the gong, "when the immense and densely packed crowd rush to the market place; Coreans, Chinese, and Manchus, are all mingled together. Each speaks in his own tongue, and so great is the uproar produced by this mass of people, that the echoes of the neighboring mountains repeat their discordant shouts."

"Four or five hours is the whole time allowed for buying and selling; consequently, the tumult which takes place, the quarrels which arise, the blows which are exchanged, and the plundering which goes on, give the place more the look of a city taken by storm and given up to pillage, than that of a fair." At evening, when the signal is given, the strangers are driven out by the soldiers with the points of their lances.

Manchuria. The vast regions of Manchuria, lying north of Corea to the Hing-an or Yablonoi mountains, and east of the Sialkoi to the ocean, are inhabited by various tribes speaking different dialects and subsisting principally by hunting and fishing. The Manchus are now the dominant race, but some of the tribes near the sea and in Taraka island, bear no tributary relations to them, if indeed they are much acquainted. Since the conquest of China, the Manchus have gone on steadily improving this part of their possessions by stationing agricultural troops at the principal ports of observation, and collecting the hunters around these points as much as possible. Criminals are also constantly banished there, who carry with them their arts, and by their industry both maintain themselves and set an example to the nomads. The southern part called Shingking, has become well cultivated in many parts, and considerable trade is carried on at Kinchau with other parts of China.

Manchuria produces pulse, maize, (Indian corn), millet, barley and buckwheat; pulse, drugs and cattle, form the leading articles of trade. The climate of this country is so inhospitable, as to prove a serious obstacle in the way of its settlement and cultivation.

The Manchus have no national literature; all the books written in their language are translations of Chinese works, made under the superintendence of the Academies at Moukden and Peking. Their written characters are derived from the Mongols, but have undergone many changes. The emperors have taken great pains to elevate their countrymen by providing them with the best books in Chinese literature, and compelling them to go through the same examinations before they can attain any office; but the numerical superiority of the Chinese and their active habits, give them so much the advantage, that except in their own country, the Manchus find it difficult to preserve their native tongue to the second generation.

Mongolia. The last volume of the Annals of the Propaganda Society contains an interesting narrative of a journey into Mongolia, by the Rev. Mr. Huc.105 This vast country, covering a million of square miles, consists of barren deserts and boundless steppes. In the limits allotted each corps, there is seldom more than one town, where the chief resides. The people live in tents, without any permanent residence. They move from place to place, with the changes of the seasons, or when their immense herds of oxen, camels and horses have exhausted the grass around their encampment. To-day presents an animated scene of hundreds of tents, filled with an active population; the children playing as happy and contented as though surrounded with every luxury a civilized life affords; the women cooking their food and drawing water from a well just dug; and the men, mounted on horseback, are galloping over the plain, keeping their countless herds from straying away. To-morrow, this picturesque and animated scene will be changed to a dreary and forbidding desert. Men, flocks, and tents have vanished, and nought remains to mark the visit of this wandering race, but the curling smoke of their unquenched fires, or the birds of prey hovering over the carcase of some dying camel, or feeding on the remains of their late repast. The Mongols are irreclaimable nomads, though some tribes of them, as the Tsakhars, Ortous, and Solous, cultivate the soil. The four khanates of the Kalkas are called Outer Mongolia, and comprise within their borders, several well built towns, though none of any size, compared with the cities in China. Few Chinese have settled among the Mongols, except near the Great Wall, nor will they allow them to do so, as there is a deep antipathy between the two races. The Mongols of the present day have probably made no advances in civilization over their ancestors in the days of Genghis and Kublai.

The approaches of the British power up the valley of the Sutlej, into the regions lying along the base of the western Himalayas, are such that they will ere long come in contact with Tibet through Ladak, and with Yarkand through Badakshan. But there is probably more geographical than ethnological information to be gained by traversing these elevated regions, where stupendous mountains and arid deserts offer nothing to tempt man from the fertile plains of India and China. Two Romish missionaries have lately arrived in Canton from H'lassa in Tibet, by the overland route through Patang in Sz'chuen to the capital of Kwangsi, and thence to Canton. This route has never been described by any traveller.

Lewchew Islands. This group of islands, including the Madjico sima, lying between it and Formosa, form a dependency of the principality of Satzuma, in the southwest of Japan, though the rulers are allowed a limited intercourse with China through Fuhchau fu. During the late war between England and China, the transport Indian Oak was lost on Lewchew,106 August 14, 1840, and the crew were treated with great kindness, and provided with a vessel, in which they returned to Chusan. Every effort was made by the authorities to prevent the officers and men from examining the island, but their kindness to the unfortunate people thus cast on their shores, made such an impression, that a mission to the islanders was determined upon in London, by some naval gentlemen connected with the expedition, and a society formed. The Rev. B.J. Bettelheim was appointed to the post, and had reached Canton in March, 1846. He afterwards proceeded on his voyage, and his journal received at Hongkong, from Napa, contains a few details of interest, but shows plainly that the authorities are decided in refusing to allow foreigners to settle in their territories.

An attempt has been made by the Romish missionaries to establish a mission in this group.107 The Rev. W. Forcade and an associate were left on Lewchew in May, 1844, and after a residence of fifteen months were able to transmit some notices of their treatment to the directors, through Sir Edward Belcher, R.N. who stopped at Napa in August, 1845. On their arrival, M. Forcade and his companion were conducted to their dwelling, where they were surrounded by a numerous guard under the control of officers, and attended by domestics, as they were told, "to charm their leisure moments." Their table was bountifully supplied, and everything they could ask to make them comfortable was granted them, except their liberty. Whenever they went abroad, they were accompanied by a guard, but allowed to hold no intercourse with the natives; they had not been able to proceed beyond twelve miles into the interior, but as far as they had opportunities of conversing with the natives, found them simple and courteous in their manners, and disposed to talk when not under surveillance. It is probable, however, that under such restraint as these gentlemen were placed, it is not likely that they had attained to such fluency in the language as to be able to hold very ready communication with natives met in this hasty manner. The intentions of the government were plain, however, not to allow them to disseminate their doctrines, (if it had learned their real object), nor, by intercourse with the people, become acquainted with their character, or the state of the country. No assistance was granted them in learning the language, and they were forbidden to adopt the native costume. Notwithstanding this opposition, they had been able to acquire a partial knowledge of the language, and to compile a vocabulary of six thousand words. Permission to preach the Christian religion was not granted them, lest, as the authorities said, the Chinese, to whom they are tributary, would break off all intercourse; but the real reason was doubtless their fear of the Japanese. Yet these obstacles did not dishearten them, and they seem determined to persevere in their attempts, though it is not unlikely that when Mr. Bettelheim arrives, the authorities will take measures for deporting them all.

The Lewchewans are intimately connected with the Japanese. The language is the same, with unimportant dialectical variations, and Chinese letters and literature are in like manner cultivated by both. In personal appearance, however, the two people are very unlike. The Lewchewans are not on an average over five feet four inches high, slightly built, and approach the Malayan cast of features more than the Chinese. They are darker than the Chinese, and their mild traits of character, unwarlike habits, and general personal appearance, suggests the idea that they are akin to the aborigines of Formosa and Luçonia by descent, while their proximity and subjugation to their powerful neighbors on the north and west, have taught them a higher civilization, and introduced arts and sciences unknown to their early conquerors. When Lewchew was subjugated by the Japanese, it was agreed that embassies with tribute might be sent to Peking, and according to the Chinese account, they come to that court twice in three years.108 The secretary or deputy embassador in 1841, was drowned in his passage from Peking to Fuhchau. This embassy is a source of considerable profit to the Lewchewans, for their junks, which are built on the Chinese model, have free entrance to Fuhchau, and all the goods they import and export, are passed without duty. The travelling expenses of the embassy to and from the capital are also defrayed, and permission is given them to study Chinese when in the country. This intercourse is therefore both honorable and profitable to the Lewchewans, but the Chinese are not allowed to trade there, and the only act of sovereignty the emperor exercises, according to M. Forcade, is to send a delegate to sanction the accession of a new incumbent of the throne – whom, however, it would be ridiculous for him to refuse. He adds, "In conversation, if one is a stranger, the Lewchewans will be continually dwelling on China, they will boast about it, they will relate its history, they will describe its provinces and its cities; but Japan is never mentioned! Such are the words, but the facts are quite another thing."

The real character of the connection between Lewchew and Japan is not well ascertained. No Japanese officers are seen on landing, and the officers appointed to attend the people of the Indian Oak, exhibited the greatest alarm when a few were seen at a distance, while the party were taking a walk. The trade between the two countries is confined to the ports of Napa and Kagosima, between which the vessels of both nations pass; the junks from other parts of Japan are not permitted to resort to Napa, but it is not probable that the prince of Satzuma has the right of appointing the residents, or whatever authorities are sent thither. M. Forcade says there were from ten to fifteen Japanese vessels in the port, but when the American ship Morrison was there, in 1837, there were only five. Lackered-ware, grass cloth, sugar, and earthen-ware, are exported to Kagosima, and a great assortment of metallic articles, cloths, provisions, and stationery taken in exchange. The country in the vicinity of Napa, and towards Shudi, the capital, is highly cultivated, and the people appear to be as well clothed, and possess as many of the comforts and elegancies of life as their neighbors. They still retain enough of their own customs, however, to distinguish them from the Japanese, even if their physical appearance did not point them out as distinct. M. Forcade says that there is reason for supposing Christianity to have been implanted in Lewchew at the same time it was introduced into Japan, but Lewchew at that time seems to have been much less dependant upon Japan than subsequently; and it is not probable that much was done to proselyte its inhabitants. He mentions that a cross is cut on the end of the rampart where foreigners land, who are thus obliged to trample on this symbol; but no other visitors mention any such sculpture or custom. The landing place at Napa is a long stone jetty, stretching across the beach, which at low tide, prevents boats approaching the shore.

JAPAN

This country has recently attracted increased attention on the part of commercial nations, and several foreign ships have lately appeared on the coasts, whose reception has only shown the vigilance of the authorities in taking every precaution neither to offend nor receive their unwelcome visitors. The Dutch and Chinese are still the only nations allowed to trade with the Japanese, and the news brought by the latter people of the troubles they have lately gone through with their foreign customers, has probably only more strongly convinced the siogoun and his ministers of the propriety of their seclusive policy. Nor is there much reason to doubt that the Chinese and Japanese have avoided the fate of the natives of Luçonia, Java, and India, by shutting out foreigners from free access and intercourse with their people, and owing to their seclusion, have remained independent to this day. The works of Siebold upon the natural history and political condition of the country and its inhabitants, are now slowly publishing in Paris, but with such luxury of execution as to place them beyond the reach of most persons who might be desirous to examine them. The visits of two American ships to the bay of Yedo, has directed the public eye again to the empire. The first was that of the whaler Manhattan, Captain Cooper, who was led to think of going into the port by having taken eleven shipwrecked men off a small island near the Bonin islands, in April, 1845, lying southeast of Nippon. As he was going north, he fell in with a water-logged junk from Nambu, laden with rice and fish, from which he received eleven more, and soon after made the eastern coast in the principality of Simosa. Here he landed two men, and proceeding towards Cape King, landed two more, who made their way to Yedo. Owing to north winds, he was blown off the coast twice, and when he approached the estuary leading to the capital, he was taken in tow and carried up to the anchorage. Interpreters came off to the vessel, who could speak English sufficiently well to carry on an imperfect communication, who informed Captain Cooper that his wants would be supplied, but none of his company allowed to land. A triple cordon of boats was placed around the ship, consisting of upwards of a thousand small boats, displaying numerous flags, and containing as many armed men as if the country was in danger of attack. The ship was visited by crowds of natives of all ranks, who behaved with great decorum while gratifying their curiosity, but no trade was allowed. Many officers of high rank came on board and examined the ship, and took an inventory of every article belonging to the rescued seamen, before they were allowed to land. The ship was gratuitously supplied with provisions and a few spars, to the value of about $500, but the captain was again and again enjoined not to return there on any account. When he inquired what he should do if he again came across the siogoun's subjects in like distress, and exposed to a cruel death, he was told, "leave them to their fate, or take them where the Dutch can get them." The men rescued from starvation and death, were, however, deeply sensible of the kindness which had been shown them. After a stay of eight or ten days, Captain Cooper was towed out of the port, and down the bay to the coast, and the last injunction was only a repetition of the first order, not to come again. This reception, though it presents no encouragement to hope for a relaxation of the policy, deemed by the siogoun at once his safety and his profit, is less likely to call for summary chastisement than the rude repulse the American ship Morrison received in 1837, when she entered the bay of Yedo on the same errand, and was driven away by cannon balls and armed gunboats.

Captain Cooper represents the country in this portion of it as clothed with verdure, and under a high state of cultivation. The proximity of the mountains in Idzu, produces constant showers, which covers the highest peaks with forests and shrubbery. Terrace cultivation is extensively practiced, and constant labor is demanded to supply subsistence to the dense population, who still at times suffer severely for want of food. The capital could not well be seen from the ship, and its enceinte was so filled with trees, that its dimensions could not accurately be defined. No towers or pagodas were seen elevating themselves above the dull monotony of the buildings. The harbor was covered with vessels, at anchor and moving about; some of them unwieldy, open-stern junks, designed for the coast trade, others light skiffs and boats, used for communicating with vessels in the harbor and the shore. The greatest part of the coasting trade centres at Yedo, owing to the large amount of taxes paid the siogoun in kind, and the supplies the princes receive from their possessions while they reside in the capital, both of which causes operate to develope the maritime skill of the people, and increase the amount of tonnage. The shortsighted policy which confines the energies and capital of a seagoing people like the Japanese, within their own shores is, however, less a matter of wonder than the despotic power which could compel them to stay at home two centuries ago, at a time when their merchants and agents were found from Acapulco to Bangkok.

The Japanese empire presents the greatest feudal government now existing, and on that account is peculiarly interesting to the student of political science. In some respects, the people are superior to the Chinese, but are inferior in the elements of national wealth and progress. They belong to the Mongolian race, but are darker than the Chinese, and not as tall, though superior in stature to the Lewchewans. They approximate to the Kamtschatdales in their square build, short necks, large heads, and short lower limbs. They are of a light olive complexion, but seldom exhibit a florid, ruddy countenance.

Among the articles obtained from the junk by Captain Cooper, was a map of Japan, including part of Yesso. It is four feet square, drawn on the proportion of less than one degree to two inches, and contains the names of all the places there is room for. It is cut on wood, and painted to show the outlines of the chief principalities; the relative importance of the places is shown by writing their names in different shaped cartouches, but from the space occupied by the Chinese characters, there is probably not one-tenth of all the towns inserted. The distances between the principal points along the coast are stated, and on some of the leading thoroughfares inland. The map is evidently the original of Krusenstern's "Carte de Nippon," published by the Russian Board of Longitude, and is drawn up from trigonometrical surveys. The degrees of latitude bear the same numbers as upon European maps; the meridians are reckoned from Yedo. The existence of such maps among the people indicates that a good knowledge of their own country is far more extensively diffused than among the Chinese, whose common maps are a standing reproach to them, while they have others so much more accurate. The coast from Cape King northward to Simosa, for the space of two degrees, was found by captain Cooper to be better delineated upon this map than upon his own charts. These seas present a fine field for hydrographic surveys, and it would greatly advance the security of navigation on the eastern shores of Asia, and redound to the honor of our own land, if the American government would despatch two small vessels to survey the seas and shores between Luçonia and Kamtschatka.

The visit of Commodore Biddle to the bay of Yedo, has added nothing to our knowledge of its shores. His polite dismissal, and the refusal of the government to entertain any commercial relations with the Americans, only add force to the injunction to captain Cooper the year before, not to return, and shows more strongly that while the Japanese rulers are determined to maintain their secluded policy, they wish to give no cause for retaliatory measures on the part of their unwelcome visitors, and mean to keep themselves as well informed as they can upon foreign politics. The subject of foreign intercourse between the two great nations of Eastern Asia and Europeans since it commenced three centuries since, is an instructive one; and the general impression left upon the mind of the candid reader, is that foreign nations have themselves chiefly to thank for their present seclusion from those shores, and the restrictions in their commerce. Rear-Admiral Cecille has also paid a visit to some part of Japan, quite recently, but met with no success in his endeavors to enter into negotiation.

The great object in view in making these attempts to improve the intercourse with Japan, is to find new markets for western manufactures. It is quite doubtful, however, whether the Japanese have many articles suitable for foreign markets. Their lackered-ware is exceedingly beautiful, but it would not be so prized when it became more common. Copper and tea would form the basis of exports, and perhaps some silk fabrics, but China furnishes now all that is wanted of them both, and can do so to any extent. Until a taste for such foreign manufactures, as woolens, cutlery, glass-ware, calicoes, &c., is created among them, and they are willing to adapt their own products to the tastes of their customers, it does not seem likely that a trade at all proportioned to the estimated population and riches of the country, would soon be established. The Japanese are afraid of the probable results of a more extended intercourse, and deem it to be the safest course to run no risks; and if they read the pages of their early intercourse with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch, they must feel they would run many serious risks by granting a trade. If the siogoun and his advisers could be rightly informed, however, there are grounds for believing the present policy would be considerably relaxed.