British Wild Flowers: A photographic guide to every common species

Perianth – collective name for a flower’s petals and sepals.

Petals – inner segments of a flower, often colourful.

Petiole – leaf stalk.

Pinnate – leaf division with opposite pairs of leaflets and a terminal one.

Pod – elongated fruit, often almost cylindrical, seen in pea family members.

Pollen – tiny grains that contain male sex cells, produced by a flower’s anthers.

Procumbent – lying on the ground.

Prostrate – growing in a manner pressed tightly to the ground.

Pubescent – with soft, downy hairs.

Ray – one of the stalks of an umbel.

Ray floret – one of the outer florets of a composite flower.

Receptacle – swollen upper part of a stem to which the flower is attached.

Recurved – curving backwards or downwards.

Reflexed – bent back at an angle of more than 90 degrees.

Rhizome – underground, or ground-level, stem.

Rosette – clustered, radiating arrangement of leaves at ground level.

Saprophyte – plant that lacks chlorophyll and which derives its nutrition from decaying matter.

Sepal – one of the outer, usually less colourful, segments of a flower.

Sessile – lacking a stalk.

Shrub – branched, woody plant.

Spadix – spike of florets as seen in members of the genus Arum.

Spathe – large, leafy bract surrounding the flower spike as seen in members of the genus Arum.

Species – division within classification that embraces organisms that closely resemble one another and that can interbreed to produce a viable subsequent generation.

Spreading – branching horizontally (in the case of a whole plant) or sticking out at right angles (in the case of hairs).

Stamen – male part of the flower, comprising the anther and filament.

Stigma – receptive surface of the female part of a flower, to which pollen adheres.

Stipule – usually a pair of leaf-like appendages at the base of a leaf.

Stolon – creeping stem.

Style – element of the female part of the flower, sitting on the ovary and supporting the stigma.

Subspecies – members of a species that possess significant morphological differences from other groups within the species as a whole; in natural situations, different subspecies are often separated geographically.

Succulent – swollen and fleshy.

Tendril – slender, twining growth used by some plants to aid climbing.

Tepals – both sepals and petals, when the two are indistinguishable.

Thallus – the body of a plant in species where separate structures cannot be distinguished readily.

Tomentose – covered in cottony hairs.

Trifoliate (or trefoil) – leaf with three separate lobes.

Truncate – ending abruptly and squared-off.

Tuber – swollen, usually underground, part of the stem or root.

Tubercle – small swelling.

Umbel – complex, umbrella-shaped inflorescence.

Whorl – several leaves or branches arising from the same point on a stem.

FLOWERS

ATTRACTIVE THOUGH MANY OF them may be, flowers are not produced to delight the human eye. Their role is strictly functional – they are the plant’s sex organs, there to produce sex cells and ensure the maximum chance of successful fertilisation taking place.

BASIC FLOWER STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

In a few species, male and female sex cells are borne in separate flowers, or even on different plants, but in most cases they appear together within the same flower. Male sex cells are contained within pollen, tiny grains that are produced by structures called anthers and borne on slender stems referred to as filaments; collectively, anthers and filaments are referred to as stamens. The female part of most flowers comprises the ovary, containing the female sex cells, above which is borne the stigma (which receives the pollen) carried on a stem called the style.

Some plants, such as grasses and catkin-bearing shrubs, employ the wind to carry their pollen to others of the same species. Vast quantities of pollen are required to achieve a successful outcome with such a random process. Most other species adopt a more targeted approach and use the services of animals – insects in almost all cases – to transfer pollen. In exchange for a meal, in the form of nectar, insects inadvertently carry pollen on their bodies to the next flowers they visit; with any luck, a neighbouring plant of the same species will be visited while pollen still persists. In almost all species, flower structure has evolved to avoid self-pollination and to maximise the chances of cross-pollination – pollen being transferred to visiting insect pollinators and received from other plants by the same agents.

Bumblebees, and bees generally, are the classic insect pollinators. They visit flowers in search of nectar and unwittingly acquire a dusting of pollen, which is slightly sticky, on their hairy bodies; this is then carried to subsequent flowers they visit.

Cross-section through a typical flower, in this case a crane’s-bill.

Close-up of a stamen.

Close-up of the stigma, style and ovary.

WILD FLOWER IDENTIFICATION

SEASONED AND EXPERIENCED BOTANISTS are likely to approach the subject of identification by using definitive botanical works (floras) that rely on detailed keys, a thorough understanding of botanical terms, and a willingness to use descriptions rather than pictures to separate species. While this approach has scientific validity, in my experience it is not the way that the average floral enthusiast approaches the problem. Most tend to leaf through illustrated books to find suitable candidate species and then narrow down the field by scrutinising any closely related alternatives. This approach can succeed in most instances, especially if close care is paid to the detailed structure of the plant – leaves and fruits, as well as flowers – in addition to other factors such as flowering time, habitat preferences and distribution. I anticipate that this is how Complete British Wild Flowers will be used, initially at least, by most readers, although it will not take long for even the most inexperienced person to be able to detect similarities among plant family members, hence narrowing down the options at a stroke. Nevertheless, for absolute beginners, I felt it would be useful to provide a few pointers to lead in the right direction. I have concentrated on flower families where, in most species, there are sufficient similarities to justify generalisations. Strikingly unusual flowers, and species without large family ties, are not included in the following series of short cuts. I have used flower structure, such as the number of petals, as an initial guide. Note, however, that within several of the families identified, one or more rogue species may defy the family character and will not fall into the appropriate category. For example, although Tormentil is a member of the rose family (characterised by flowers with five petals), its flowers have just four petals.

SHORT CUTS TO FLOWER IDENTITY

3-PETALLED FLOWERS

WATER-PLANTAINS – equal-sized petals; white or pinkish petals; aquatic or marginal plants; see pp.

ORCHIDS – flowers comprising 3 petals plus 3 sepals, the latter often petal-like in colour and shape; the lower petal often takes the form of an enlarged or elaborate lip; see pp.

4-PETALLED FLOWERS

CABBAGE FAMILY MEMBERS – relatively small flowers; equal-sized petals; flowers often in groups; white, yellow or pinkish depending on species; see pp.

BEDSTRAWS – tiny flowers; equal-sized petals; flowers often in frothy heads; white or yellow depending on species; see pp.

SPEEDWELLS – relatively small flowers; unequal-sized petals; blue, purplish or white depending on species; see pp.

WILLOWHERBS – relatively small flowers in most species; equal-sized petals; flowers in open heads; pinkish, red or white depending on species; see pp.

POPPIES AND ALLIES – relatively large and crinkly, equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; red or yellow depending on species; see pp.

5-PETALLED FLOWERS

WATER-CROWFOOTS – equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; white petals; aquatic; see pp.

SUNDEWS – tiny flowers with equal petals; in spikes but usually only one flower opens at a time; bog plants with sticky, red leaves; white petals; see pp.

BUTTERCUPS – equal-sized, often shiny petals; flowers usually solitary; yellow; see pp.

ROCK-ROSES – equal-sized, crinkly petals; flowers usually solitary; yellow or white depending on species; see pp.

ST JOHN’S-WORTS – equal-sized petals; flowers in open heads in most species; yellow but marked with small black dots or streaks in some species; see pp.

ROSES AND ALLIES – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; white, pink or yellow depending on species; see pp.

SAXIFRAGES – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; white, pinkish or yellow depending on species; see pp.

MULLEINS – equal-sized or slightly unequal petals; flowers often in tall spikes; yellow or white depending on species; see pp.

LOOSESTRIFES AND PIMPERNELS – petals fused but 5 distinct and equal lobes present; yellow, red, purple or pink depending on species; see pp.

PRIMROSE – petals fused but 5 distinct and equal lobes present; yellow or pink depending on species; see pp.

MALLOWS – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads; pink; see pp.

CENTAURIES – corolla fused but with 5 petal-like lobes; in clusters in most species; petals pink or yellow depending on species; see pp.

WOOD SORREL AND ALLIES – equalsized petals; yellow, pinkish or white depending on species; trifoliate leaves; see pp.

PINKS, CHICKWEEDS AND STITCHWORTS – equal-sized petals, often deeply divided; flowers usually solitary; white or pink depending on species; see pp.

PEA FAMILY MEMBERS – unequal petals arranged in a characteristic manner comprising a standard, a keel and wings; yellow, pinkish, purple or white depending on species; see pp.

CRANE’S-BILLS – equal-sized petals; flowers solitary or in open heads depending on species; pinkish, bluish or purple depending on species; see pp.

FLAXES – equal-sized petals; flowers usually solitary; bluish or white depending on species; see pp.

SEA-LAVENDERS – flowers funnelshaped; petals fused at the base; restricted to coastal habitats; bluish-lilac petals; see pp.

VIOLETS – unequal petals; spur present; blue, violet or white depending on species; see pp.

FORGET-ME-NOTS – petals fused but 5 petal-like lobes present; in open heads in most species; blue, pinkish or white depending on species; see pp.

TRUMPET-SHAPED FLOWERS

GENTIANS – trumpet relatively narrow; petals fused but with 4 or 5 pointed or rounded lobes; bluish, purple or pinkish depending on species; see pp.

BINDWEEDS – trumpet open and flared; white or pink depending on species; see pp.

BELL-SHAPED FLOWERS

BELLFLOWERS – flowers rather open with 5 lobes; blue or purplish depending on species; see pp.

HEATHERS – flowers typically small, rather tubular and usually pendent; pink or purple depending on species; see pp.

TUBULAR OR FUSED FLOWERS

EYEBRIGHTS – flowers 2-lipped; upper lip hooded, lower lip 3-lobed; white, marked with purple and yellow; see pp.

BORAGE AND ALLIES – 5 lobes present; flowers borne in spikes, curved in some species; yellow, pinkish, purple or white depending on species; see pp.

TOADFLAXES – flowers spurred and 2-lipped; upper lip 2-lobed, lower lip 3-lobed; yellow or purplish depending on species; see pp.

LOUSEWORTS AND COW-WHEATS – flowers 2-lipped; upper lip hooded, lower lip 3-lobed; borne in spike-like heads in most species; pinkish or purple depending on species; see pp.