The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac

8

Signor Rajna has found the names of Arthur and Gawain in Italian deeds of the first quarter of the twelfth century, and from the nature of some of these deeds it is clear that the persons named therein cannot have been born later than 1080.

9

Charrette, ll. 2347-2362.

10

Romania, vol. x. p. 492.

11

Studies in the Arthurian Legend, chap. vi.

12

The only adventure of the kind I can recall is that of the fiery lance of the Charrette and prose Lancelot, an adventure which is the common property of several knights, and by no means confined to Lancelot.

13

Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Litteratur, vol. xii. Heft I.

14

Der Karrenritter, herausgegeben von Wendelin Foerster: Halle, 1899.

15

Cf. Anturs of Arthur, where the ghost foretells to Gawain the treason of Mordred, the destruction of the Round Table, and his own death. Lancelot is not mentioned. Nor does he appear in Syr Gawayne and the Grene Knyghte or in The Avowynge of Arthur. In some of the other poems, Galogres and Gawayne, The Carle of Carlile, The Marriage of Sir Gawain, and Sir Libeaus Desconus he is mentioned, but plays no important part. The ballad of Sir Lancelot du Lake in the Percy Collection is a version of an adventure related in the Prose Lancelot.

16

Cf. Karrenritter, Introduction, p. xxxix.

17

The materials for this study had been collected, and my conclusion as to the origin of the Lancelot story arrived at, before the publication of Professor Foerster's book. I am glad to find myself supported in any point by such an authority, but think it well to avoid misconception by stating that my results have been arrived at through independent study.

18

Lanzelet von Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, ed. Hahn: Frankfurt, 1845. Out of print and difficult to procure.

19

This account, and the mention of England, l. 7054, seem to render it possible that the original poem may have been written in this island.

20

This is entirely in accordance with Tristan's character as represented in the poems. He is in the highest degree rusé and resourceful.

21

Is it not possible that this Malduz the magician may be the original of Mauduiz li Sages whom Chrétien ranks as eighth of Arthur's knights? Cf. Erec, 1699. Hartmann's version gives Malduiz; Diu Krône, 1379, Malduz der Weise. The identification seems clear.

22

I am quite at a loss to account for the mistake into which such authorities as M. Gaston Paris and Professor Foerster have apparently fallen. In M. Paris's study the idea that Lanzelet is the rescuer is perhaps rather implied than stated, but when I wrote the Charrette chapter (viii.) in my Studies on the Legend of Sir Gawain, in which I followed the article in Romania, I was certainly under the impression that the latter was the case. In the introduction to the Karrenritter, p. xliv., Professor Foerster distinctly says that Lanzelet frees the queen. I have read and re-read the text carefully and made my final summary direct from it, and there is no doubt that Lanzelet has nothing to do with the matter. The passage in question is contained in ll. 6975-7445. How too did Professor Foerster come to ignore the real character of Guinevere's imprisonment? Cf. Charrette, lxxi.

23

Karrenritter, Introduction, p. xliv.

24

I think it is worthy of note that though Lanzelet is the hero of the tale here and not Guinglain, Gawain's son, as elsewhere, yet in this poem Lanzelet is Arthur's nephew, and of Gawain's kin, which he is not in any other version. The Fier Baiser is thus still restricted to the family of Gawain.

25

Cf. my Legends of the Wagner Drama, Siegfried.

26

I say especially 'as told by Geoffrey and Wace,' for these writers give us clearly to understand that the queen was a consenting party, and no victim to Mordred's treachery. It is quite a different version from that of the prose Lancelot.

27

I shall have occasion to refer very frequently to Professor Foerster's introduction. It is a full and powerful statement of views which so far as they affect the origin and evolution of the Arthurian legend I believe to be radically unsound. It is most useful to have at hand a summary so clear and concise.

28

Merlin, G. Paris and Ulrich's ed., vol. ii. pp. 136-137.

29

In the prose Lancelot the hero is always addressed as 'king's son.' Cf. in this connection Professor Ker's review of my Legend of Sir Gawain, Folk-lore, vol. ix. p. 266. I incline to think that the question of a hero's possessing from the first a name and a well-marked story depends upon whether he has or has not an existence in myth. If of mythical origin he probably would have both, if an actor in folk-tale very likely neither; thus while I should reject Professor Ker's correction as regards Gawain, I would certainly hold it true of Lancelot. In the case of this latter hero, I think his name may well have been determined by his title du Lac. The tendency of early verse is towards alliteration, probably mere chance determined the Lancelot, the one essential was that it should begin with an L. It should, I think, also be noted that while in the Lanzelet the hero's ignorance of his name and birth are genuine, in the prose Lancelot he knows who he is, and the wrong done to his father and uncle by Claudas. The pseudonyms 'Filz du Roi,' 'Beau Varlet' are here unnecessary; a meaningless survival from the original tale.

30

This feature is, I think, peculiar to Wolfram; Chrétien does not mention it.

31

Professor Hertz, in his edition of the Parzival, p. 440, records these points of contact, but does not discuss the question of the relation of the two poems. Professor Foerster in his introduction simply notes that the instruction by Johfrit de Liez recalls the Perceval story.

32

Layamon 'Brut' knows Maurin of Winchester as a kinsman of Arthur's, ll. 20238 and 24336. I have not found the name elsewhere.

33

It appears to me that, in view of Herr P. Hagen's excellent demonstration of the correctness of the many curious Oriental references with which the Parzival abounds, and his remarkable identification of Wolfram's Grail with a sacred Bætylus stone, it is impossible any longer to deny the possession, by Wolfram, of a source other than Chrétien's poem. But whether the Lanzelet offers another proof or not I should hesitate to say. If it does, the evidence, extending as it does over so much of the Parzival, is of the greatest value as an indication of the extent of Kiot's work.

34

Lancelot, ed. Jonckbloet, vol. ii. ll. 22271-23126. The summaries in this chapter, and all subsequent references to the Dutch Lancelot, are taken direct from the text. A summary of the romance here discussed is given by M. Gaston Paris, Histoire Littéraire de la France, vol. xxx. p. 113.

35

Throughout the Dutch Lancelot we have constant references to Gawain's skill in healing. Cf. Parzival, x. 104. Chrétien does not appear to know this trait in Gawain's character.

36

The lai of Tyolet was published by M. Gaston Paris in vol. viii. of Romania, 'Lais Inédits.' I have given a prose translation in vol. iii. of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory.

37

Cf. Merlin, Sommer's ed. chap. xxiv. p. 302.

38

Tristan, vol. i. Book XIII., ed. Bechstein, Deutsche classiker des Mittelalters; also my translation of same, Arthurian Romances, No. ii. vol. i.

39

Dutch Lancelot, vol. i. l. 42,540 to end. The portion dealing with the adventure begins l. 43,593; the adventure itself, l. 46,514; also summarised in Hist. Litt. vol. xxx.

40

The poem itself has been discussed by M. Gaston Paris in Romania, vol. xii., and by Professor Foerster in the introduction to his edition. The question of Guinevere's rescuer has been treated by Professor Rhys in his Studies in the Arthurian Legend, and in M. Gaston Paris's article just referred to, and that on Ulrich von Zatzikhoven's Lanzelet in Romania, vol. x. I have also devoted a chapter in my Legend of Sir Gawain to the subject.

41

The concluding portion of the poem is by Godefroy de Leigni, who, however, worked with Chrétien's knowledge and approval, so that practically the work may be held to be Chrétien's throughout.

42

Livre, Cligés and Perceval; conte, Erec and Chevalier au Lion. The concluding lines of the latter, 'qu'onques plus conter n'an oï,' clearly indicate this. I shall return to this subject in the next chapter.

43

The manifold discrepancies of Chrétien's version were long ago remarked upon by M. Gaston Paris, and even Professor Foerster, with all his enthusiasm for the poet, is constrained to admit their existence, but he considers some of the puzzles were of Chrétien's own making, and he intended later to clear them up. Why then did he not explain them to Godefroy de Leigni, who finished the poem with Chrétien's approval?

44

I do not here include either the mediæval Welsh fragments or Malory's account. The meaning of the former cannot be accurately ascertained, and the latter practically represents the same version as that of the Charrette poem, though the question of source cannot, as I shall prove later on, be held to be definitely settled.

45

Cf. Simrock, Handbuch der deutschen Mythologie, Dornröschen. Some of the details of Arthur's journey to Valerîn's stronghold are worth the attention of folk-lore experts, e.g. the curious account of the Schrîenden Mose, that at certain times utters loud cries, drî tage vor sunegihten sô schrît daz mos und selten mêr, and the curious fish in its stream, which are 'ebenlanc und ebenkurz,' and of which 'die Engellende' have many. Cf. Lanzelet, ll. 7040 et seq.

46

On these varying forms of the 'other-world' dwelling, cf. Rassmann Heldensage, vol. i. p. 152.

47

Legend of Sir Gawain, chap. viii.

48

As a rule, whenever in the Iwein Hartmann does depart from his source, it is with the effect of making the story more coherent and probable. I have noted several instances of this in my study on the Yvain poems, Modern Quarterly for Language and Literature, July and November, 1898.

49

Cf. Parzival, Book VII. 1472.

50

Cf. Parzival, Book VII., as above; also 590 et seq. and 1355 et seq.

51

Cf. Der Gral, P. Hagen: Strassburg, 1900. I am unable to accept the author's contention that the Bætylus-Grail represents the original form of the talisman; but he certainly proves the correctness of the many curious references to Oriental literature which are peculiar to Wolfram's version of the story, and cannot possibly have been within that writer's own knowledge.

52

In this connection, cf. Dr. Brown's study on The Round Table before Wace, vol. vii. of Harvard Studies: Boston, 1900; and the incidental demonstration that Layamon had access to Welsh traditions unknown to Wace.

53

For the first, cf. Legend of Sir Gawain, chap. ix., where I have discussed the variants of the poem. For The Marriage of Sir Gawain, cf. Mr. Maynadier's exhaustive study of The Wife of Bath's Tale, vol. xiii. of the present series. In the case of the Green Knight there are certain peculiarities of names which point to an intermediate French stage, which, in this instance at least, cannot well have been other than an Anglo-Norman poem.

54

The French variant which seems to have most affinity with the tale referred to is that of the Didot Perceval, printed by M. Hucher in vol. i. of his Saint Graal, p. 453.

55

Introduction, Charrette, p. cxxvii.

56

Cf. 'Nouvelles Etudes sur la provenance du cycle Arthurien,' Romania, vols. xxvii. and xxviii.

57

Cf. Artus Kampf mit dem Katzenungetum, E. Freymond, Halle: 1899.

58

Romania, vol. xxix. p. 121 et seq.

59

The evidence of the lais, and the fact that Marie de France was Chrétien's contemporary, forbids us to postulate an entirely oral transmission.

60

Of this the 'runs' of Celtic and Gaelic story-tellers form a good example. Cf. Hyde's Beside the Fire, p. xxv.

61

Mr. E. S. Hartland, to whom I submitted the question.

62

Cf. M. Ferd. Lot 'La patrie des lais Bretons,' Romania, vol. xxviii.

63

Chap. iii.

64

'Morgue la Fée et Morgan Tud,' Romania, vol. xxviii. p. 327.

65

Professor Foerster's references to this character (Charrette, lxxiii.) are perplexing. He prints Chrétien's description of the 'Ile' side by side with a parallel passage from Giraldus Cambrensis, Topographia Hiberniæ, informing us that both are 'ganz einfach eine naturgetreue Beschreibung von Irland.' He cannot mean us to understand that the one description is borrowed from the other; the work of Giraldus is at least thirty years later than the Erec (circa 1186), and that chronicler would hardly go to a romancer like Chrétien for the description of a country he knew personally. But is it a 'Naturgetreue' description of Ireland at all? Professor Foerster is compelled himself to admit naïvely, 'Gewitter und Stürme fehlen nicht ganz!' Is this not rather a description of the fabled Irish Paradise which Chrétien and Giraldus alike have borrowed from a source common to both?

66

Of course I here use the word Breton in a general sense as opposed to French. I do not intend to imply that Arthur is of Continental origin.

67

Ueber die Bedeutung von Bretagne, Breton, Zeitschrift für französische Sprache, xx. 79-162.

68

Cf. chap. ii.

69

Cf. Charrette, lxxxi. and cxli.

70

Cf. on this point Professor Foerster's Introductions to his editions of the Yvain, 1887 (large ed.), 1891 (small ed.).

71

Cf. Grisebach, Die Treulose Witwe: Wien, 1873.

72

Cf. review of The Legend of Sir Gawain. Zeitschrift für französische Sprache, No. 20, p. 95.

73

Cf. Gautier, Epopées Françaises, vol. ii. p. 89 ff.; also Helisant, in Garin le Loherain.

74

Cf. Brut, ed. Leroux de Lincy, vol. ii. ll. 13597-99.

75

Cf. The Golden Bough, J. G. Frazer.

76

Cf. Merlin, ed. Paris and Ulrich, vol. ii. pp. 44-56; Meraugis de Portlesguez, ll. 2915 et seq.

77

Vide supra, Legend of Sir Gawain, Zeitschrift für franz. Spr.

78

M. Ferd. Lot, to whom I am indebted for the verification of this passage, writes: 'Le

répresente un léger blanc occasionné par un défaut du parchemin, en sorte qu'on pourrait lire en deux mots Lan donez (d'où l'ont donez); on peut lire Lan-donez aussi bien que Laudonez.'

79

Cf. Introduction to Yvain, large edition, where it is referred to as G.

80

Cf. chap. x. p. 182, where the passage referred to is given in full.

81

To say, as Professor Foerster does, that the spring=grave is to misrepresent the incidents; the castle in which the lady dwells is some distance from the spring, as we see in Yvain's chase of his flying foe.

82

I do not know that it is has any real bearing on the question, but the passage from Flamenca quoted by Wolff (Lais), p. 51, is curious: 'L'uns viola lais del cabrefoil, E' l'autre cel de Tintagoil; l'uns cantet cels des fis amanz, E l'autre cel que fes Ivans.'

83

P. cxli. et seq.

84

It should be noted that Professor Foerster offers no arguments; he only makes assertions. There may, or there may not, have been a Grail romance which knew nothing of Perceval, certainly we have no traces of such, but how can we tell what would be the character of such a story? There are any amount of theories on the subject. Wechssler has his, Hagen his, diametrically opposed to each other. Theories unsupported by proof are useless as argument. Professor Foerster is very fond of telling us this; but the moment we get on to the question of Chrétien de Troyes and his sources, adieu proof. We are wrapped in the mists of subjectivity.

85

The italics are mine.

86

Cf. Erec, l. 1526; list of knights, l. 1691 et seq.

87

Cf. Erec, l. 1699; Hartmann, Erec, l. 1635; Diu Krône, l. 1379 (Adventure of the Cup); Lanzelet, ll. 7353-64.

88

If Malduz, or Malduc, were a well-known enchanter, and connected with the Arthurian story, as he appears to have been, how did he vanish from it? Was it the greater popularity of Merlin which displaced him? What is the origin of his name? It sounds as if it might be Celtic, or can he be in any way connected with Maugis, the resourceful cousin of 'Les quatre fils Aginon'?

89

So far as the Perceval story is concerned, there is certainly evidence of varying forms, e.g., Whence did the continuators of Chrétien, notably Gerbert, draw their versions? And what of the Perceval embodied in the Dutch Lancelot, which appears to be independent, so far as the working out of the adventures suggested by the Grail messenger are concerned, of any known version?

90

Professor Foerster's attempt to base an argument on the source of Cligés cannot for a moment be accepted, cf. Introduction, Charrette, cxxxviii. We only know that the source was a book; but what that book contained, no one can say. We can never argue from the unknown to the known. We do not know much of Chrétien's sources for the other poems, but the grounds for an investigation do exist in the above instances, they do not in Cligés. We must find out how Chrétien dealt with Erec, Yvain, and Perceval before we are in a position to offer the slightest hypothesis as to his treatment of Cligés. The fact that Mark of Rome gives a short summary of the story is interesting, but so brief a résumé is of little critical value. It is certainly not a book, therefore cannot possibly be identical with Chrétien's source.

91

On this subject, cf. any scientific collection of folk-tales, e.g., The Science of Fairy Tales, by Mr. E. S. Hartland, or in the same author's Legend of Perseus, the tabulated variants of the Dragon story in vol. iii. These would help the reader to realise the number of motifs often combined in a single story. The lais of Lanval, Graalent, and Guingamor, comparatively short though they be, yet combine at least three distinct story-motifs, i.e. what we may call the Joseph and Potiphar's wife, Tannhäuser, and Lohengrin themes. Any one of these lais would be capable of considerable expansion.

92

I have studied the Yvain versions carefully, and have read those of Erec, but not compared them critically; but I should not be surprised if it were ultimately found that in The Lady of the Fountain we have the story at a stage anterior to Chrétien, and probably that at which it came into his hands, redacted by the Welsh scribe under the influence of Chrétien's poem; while in Geraint we have the process reversed, i.e. a rendering of Chrétien's poem modified by the earlier version. In the statement, 'Gwiffert Petit he is called by the Franks, but the Cymry call him the Little King,' we have, I think, a hint of this. The writer must have been too good a French scholar to think the one term a translation of the other; it rather implies that the Welsh knew the character only by a sobriquet borrowed from his diminutive size, which is exactly what we should expect, the earlier stages of story-telling being anonymous. So far as the correspondence in word and dialogue is concerned, the conclusion to be drawn depends entirely on the nature of the parallel passages; if they be merely such ordinary dialogue (question and response) as would naturally spring from the incidents of the story, both may well be reminiscences of the oral version. Analytic, self-communing passages would, of course, point to a later stage in evolution; but the Welsh version dialogue is of the simplest description.

93

Professor Foerster recognises this argument in a measure, but does not appear to realise its full bearing.

94

I should myself be inclined to limit Chrétien's share in the work to the rearrangement of existing combinations. I do not think he ever made any new combination, unless it were in the case of Cligés, and that is only a 'perhaps.'

95

Cf. Lays of Graalent and Lanval, p. 175.

96

The printed editions of the prose Lancelot chronicled by Dr. Sommer, Sources of Malory, p. 8, note, are 1494, Ant. Verard; 1513, Philippe Lenoire; 1533, Jehan Petit. There was also an edition 1533, Philippe Lenoire, which represents a very important text, and one which Dr. Sommer does not appear to know. A copy is in the Bodleian (Douce collection).

97

It is difficult to know exactly what value to place on the traditional relationship of uncle and nephew as postulated of Arthur and Lancelot in the poem of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven. This is so completely a lieu commun of heroic romance. Except in the case of a hero of distinctly mythical origin such as Gawain, I am inclined to consider it as marking a secondary stage in the evolution of a hero, he would have attained to a certain degree of popularity before it was postulated of him—thus Perceval and Caradoc are each, in turn, Arthur's nephews. In the case of Lancelot it probably represented an intermediate stage between entire independence of Arthur (the original) and son of a faithful ally (the final) form.