The Elements of Agriculture

1. The action of frost. When water lodges in the crevices of rocks, and freezes, it expands, and bursts the rock, on the same principle as causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This power is very great, and by its assistance, large cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost is the same on a small scale as when applied to large masses of matter, and, therefore, we find that when water freezes in the pores13 of rocks or stones, it separates their particles and causes them to crumble. The same rule holds true with regard to stiff clay soils. If they are ridged in autumn, and left with a rough surface exposed to the frosts of winter, they will become much lighter, and can afterwards be worked with less difficulty.

What is the effect of water on certain rocks?

How are some rocks affected by exposure to the atmosphere? Give an instance of this.

2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock become so soft on being soaked with water, that they readily crumble.

3. The chemical changes of the constituents of the rock. Many kinds of rock are affected by exposure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that changes take place in their chemical character, and cause them to fall to pieces. The red kellis of New Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, when first quarried, a very hard stone, but on exposure to the influences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that it may be easily crushed between the thumb and finger.

What is the similarity between the composition of soils and the rocks from which they were formed?

What does feldspar rock yield? Talcose slate? Marls?

Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter?

How is it affected by the growth of plants?

Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an influence on the stubbornness of rocks, and cause them to be resolved into soils.14 Of course, the composition of the soil must be similar to that of the rock from which it was formed; and, consequently, if we know the chemical character of the rock, we can tell whether the soil formed from it can be brought under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being pulverized, yields potash; talcose slate yields magnesia; marls yield lime, etc.

The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of course, no organic matter.15 Still it is capable of bearing plants of a certain class, and when these die, they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting those plants which furnish food for animals. Thousands of years must have been occupied in preparing the earth for habitation by man.

As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is usually the largest, we will consider it first.

As we have stated that this portion is formed from rocks, we will examine their character, with a view to showing the different qualities of soils.

What is the general rule concerning the composition of rocks?

Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from them?

What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil?

Is its fertility indicated by its mechanical character?

As a general rule, it may be stated that all rocks are either sandstones, limestones, or clays; or a mixture of two or more of these ingredients. Hence we find that all mineral soils are either sandy, calcareous, (limey), or clayey; or consist of a mixture of these, in which one or another usually predominates. Thus, we speak of a sandy soil, a clay soil, etc. These distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) are important in considering the mechanical character of the soil, but have little reference to its fertility.

By mechanical character, we mean those qualities which affect the ease of cultivation—excess or deficiency of water, ability to withstand drought, etc. For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to plow—retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during drought; while a light sandy soil is plowed with ease, often allows water to pass through immediately after rains, and becomes dry and powdery during drought. Notwithstanding those differences in their mechanical character, both soils may be very fertile, or one more so than the other, without reference to the clay and sand which they contain, and which, to our observation, form their leading characteristics. The same facts exist with regard to a loam, a calcareous (or limey) soil, or a vegetable mould. Their mechanical texture is not essentially an index to their fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them to furnish food to plants. It is true, that each kind of soil appears to have some general quality of fertility or barrenness which is well known to practical men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay or the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more largely into the constitution of plants than they do when they are not present in so great quantities, but on certain other facts which will be hereafter explained.

What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil? A marl? A calcareous soil? A peaty soil?

As the following names are used to denote the character of soils, in ordinary agricultural description, we will briefly explain their application:

A Sandy soil is, of course, one in which sand largely predominates.

Clay soil, one where clay forms a large proportion of the soil.

Loamy soil, where sand and clay are about equally mixed.

Marl contains from five to twenty per cent. of carbonate of lime.

Calcareous soil more than twenty per cent.

Peaty soils, of course, contain large quantities of organic matter.16

How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants?

What do we learn from the analyses of barren and fertile soils?

We will now take under consideration that part of the soil on which depends its ability to supply food to the plant. This portion rarely constitutes more than five or ten per cent. of the entire soil, sometimes less—and it has no reference to the sand, clay, and vegetable matters which they contain. From analyses of many fertile soils, and of others which are barren or of poorer quality, it has been ascertained that the presence of certain ingredients is necessary to fertility. This may be better explained by the assistance of the following table:

What can you say of the soils represented in the table of analyses?

What proportion of the fertilizing ingredients is required?

If the soil represented in the third column contained all the ingredients required except potash and soda, would it be fertile?

What would be necessary to make it so?

What is the reason for this?

What are the offices performed by the inorganic part of soils?

The soil represented in the first column might still be fertile with less organic matter, or with a larger proportion of clay (alumina), and less sand (silica). These affect its mechanical

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1

By saturated, we mean that it contains all that it is capable of holding.

2

Bromine, iodine, etc., are sometimes detected in particular plants, but need not occupy the attention of the farmer.

3

This classification is not strictly scientific, but it is one which the learner will find it well to adopt. These bodies are called neutrals because they have no decided alkaline or acid character.

4

In some soils the fluorides undoubtedly supply plants with soluble silicates, as fluoric acid has the power of dissolving silica. Thus, in Derbyshire (England), where the soil is supplied with fluoric acid, grain is said never to lodge.

5

Sourness.

6

There is reason to suppose that alumina is an essential constituent of many plants.

7

By proximate principle, we mean that combination of vegetable elements which is known as a vegetable product, such as wood, etc.

8

Muscle is lean meat, it gives to animals their strength and ability to perform labor.

9

This, of course, supposes that the soil is fertile in other respects.

10

This pectic acid gelatinizes food in the stomach, and thus renders it more digestible.

11

See Johnston's Elements, page 41.

12

Sifted through a fine cloth called a bolting cloth.

13

The spaces between the particles.

14

In very many instances the crevices and seams of rocks are permeated by roots, which, by decaying and thus inducing the growth of other roots, cause these crevices to become filled with organic matter. This, by the absorption of moisture, may expand with sufficient power to burst the rock.

15

Some rocks contain sulphur, phosphorus, etc., and these may, perhaps, be considered as organic matter.

16

These distinctions are not essential to be learned, but are often convenient.