Plain English

Whether to go forward or to retreat was the problem.

Note that nor is always the proper correlative to use with neither and also with the negatives not and never when they apply to what follows as well as to what precedes. For example:

There are thousands in this country who can neither read nor write.

Neither you nor I can foretell the future.

He will not write nor should you.

Capital punishment is nothing more nor less than legalized murder.

We shall never lower our colors nor retreat.

Or is always used with the correlative either. For example:

We will either come or write you.

Either he was mistaken or he deliberately lied.

Exercise 11

Note the use of the co-ordinate conjunctions and, but, or and nor, in the following quotation. Mark especially the use of and as an introductory conjunction, introducing a new sentence, but connecting it with that which has gone before.

In my judgment slavery is the child of ignorance. Liberty is born of intelligence. Only a few years ago there was a great awakening in the human mind. Men began to inquire, "By what right does a crowned robber make me work for him?" The man who asked this question was called a traitor.

They said then, and they say now, that it is dangerous for the mind of man to be free. I deny it. Out on the intellectual sea there is room for every sail. In the intellectual air, there is space enough for every wing. And the man who does not do his own thinking is a slave, and does not do his duty to his fellow men. For one, I expect to do my own thinking. And I will take my oath this minute that I will express what thoughts I have, honestly and sincerely. I am the slave of no man and of no organization. I stand under the blue sky and the stars, under the infinite flag of nature, the peer of every human being.

All I claim, all I plead is simple liberty of thought. That is all. I do not pretend to tell what is true nor all the truth. I do not claim that I have floated level with the heights of thought, nor that I have descended to the depths of things; I simply claim that what ideas I have, I have a right to express, and any man that denies it to me is an intellectual thief and robber.

Every creed that we have today has upon it the mark of the whip or the chain or the fagot. I do not want it. Free labor will give us wealth, and has given us wealth, and why? Because a free brain goes into partnership with a free hand. That is why. And when a man works for his wife and children, the problem of liberty is, how to do the most work in the shortest space of time; but the problem of slavery is, how to do the least work in the longest space of time. Slavery is poverty; liberty is wealth.

It is the same in thought. Free thought will give us truth; and the man who is not in favor of free thought occupies the same relation to those he can govern that the slaveholder occupied to his slaves, exactly. Free thought will give us wealth. There has not been a generation of free thought yet. It will be time to write a creed when there have been a few generations of free-brained men and splendid women in this world. I don't know what the future may bring forth; I don't know what inventions are in the brain of the future; I don't know what garments may be woven, with the years to come; but I do know, coming from the infinite sea of the future, there will never touch this "bank and shoal of time" a greater blessing nor a grander glory, than liberty for man, woman and child.

Oh, liberty! Float not forever in the far horizon! Remain not forever in the dream of the enthusiast and the poet and the philanthropist. But come and take up thine abode with the children of men forever.—Ingersoll.

SPELLING

LESSON 20

We found that we often formed adjectives by adding suffixes to other words. We also form many adverbs by the addition of suffixes to other words. Derivative adverbs are formed in the following ways:

1. By adding suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix ly, as for example; chiefly, truly, really, lately, etc.

2. By changing ble to bly, as in ably, nobly, etc.

3. By adding the suffix ward, as in forward, upward, skyward, downward, homeward, etc.

4. We have some adverbs formed by adding the prefix a to adjectives and nouns, as ahead, afoot, afresh, also by adding the prefix be, as in besides, beyond.

We often misspell a number of adverbs by adding s where it does not rightfully belong; as, anywheres, everywheres, backwards, forwards, towards, upwards, downwards, afterwards, homewards, etc. All of these words should be written without the s.

We also have a number of compound adverbs which are made by the union of two other parts of speech, such as sometime, henceforth, forever, overheard, outside, etc.

In the lesson for Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, adjectives are given having opposite meanings. Make the proper adverbs from these adjectives by the addition of the suffix ly.

Thursday's and Friday's lessons are made up of both adjectives and adverbs that end in ly. Look up in your dictionary and be sure you know which are adjectives and which are adverbs.

Saturday's lesson is made up of compound adverbs.

Monday

Haughty—Humble

Wise—Ignorant

Careful—Careless

Firm—Wavering

Tuesday

Honest—Deceitful

Fearful—Fearless

Punctual—Tardy

Identical—Different

Wednesday

Thoughtful—Thoughtless

Rich—Poor

Attentive—Inattentive

Industrious—Lazy

Thursday

Quickly

Lovely

Clearly

Cleanly

Friday

Homely

Truly

Courtly

Nearly

Saturday

Otherwise

Herewith

Sometime

Always

PLAIN ENGLISH

LESSON 21

Dear Comrade:

In this lesson we are completing the study of conjunctions. We have studied the conjunction last among the parts of speech and in the order of the development of language, the conjunction naturally comes last. The need of connective words does not come in any language until the language is quite well developed. You will notice that the connective words, such as prepositions and conjunctions are the last words the child begins to use. The child first begins to use the names of the things with which it comes in contact, then it learns the words that express what these things do. But it is not until the child begins to reason that it begins to use connective words. These become necessary when we have reached a stage of development where we can consider the relationship existing between things.

The use of conjunctions, however, can be greatly overdone. The long and involved sentences are more difficult to understand. If you will note the authors which you enjoy the most, it will probably be those who use short and crisp sentences. We have some authors who by the use of conjunctions can string one sentence out over several pages. You wonder how they manage to exist so long without stopping for breath. It is very easy for us to fall into this error when we are thinking rapidly and our thoughts all seem to be closely connected. But no mind can grasp many ideas at one time. Break your sentences up and express your ideas concisely and clearly. Use conjunctions rather sparingly, especially these subordinate conjunctions. Do not have too many subordinate clauses in one sentence.

Notice in your reading for this week those who use the short, crisp sentences and those who use the longer and more involved sentences. Notice which are understood more readily and which are more enjoyable to read. Take some of the paragraphs from those who write long and involved sentences and break them up into short sentences and see if these shorter sentences do not make the meaning simpler and clearer. This will be excellent practice also in gaining the power of expression.

Especially in the class struggle do we need those who can write clearly and simply of the great problems of the day. As the work of the world is conducted today, the workers have too little time for reading. They are apt, after a hard day's work, to be too tired to follow an author through long, winding, involved passages.

In the spoken word, this is also true. You will find your hearers much more in sympathy with you if you will use short sentences. Break your thought up so they can readily grasp your meaning and follow you to your conclusion.

Conjunctions are very important to save us from tiresome repetitions and short, jerky sentences, but we must avoid using them too frequently.

Yours for Education,THE PEOPLE'S COLLEGE.

SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

347. We have found that co-ordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases and also clauses that are entirely independent; that is, they do not depend in the slightest degree upon any other word, phrase or clause. Subordinate conjunctions connect inferior clauses to the main clauses of the sentence. These inferior clauses are dependent clauses. Subordinate conjunctions never connect words or phrases; but only dependent clauses, to the rest of the sentence. Note the following sentences:

He came quickly.

He came on time.

He came when he was called.

In the first sentence the word quickly is an adverb modifying the verb came and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the second sentence, the phrase on time is an adverb phrase modifying the verb came, and answers the question when. It tells when he came. In the third sentence, the clause when he was called, also answers the question when, and tells when he came. Therefore, it is a clause used as an adverb. It is different from the phrase on time, for the phrase on time does not contain a subject and a predicate.

348. The difference between the phrase and the clause is that the phrase does not contain either a subject or a predicate, while the clause always contains both a subject and a predicate. So in the clause, when he was called, he is the subject and was called is the predicate, and when is the subordinate conjunction, which connects this adverb clause to the verb came, which it modifies. The clause he came, and the clause when he was called, are not of equal rank and importance, because the clause, when he was called, simply modifies the verb contained in the clause he came, by describing the time of the action expressed in the verb came. So the clause, when he was called, is a subordinate or dependent clause, and the conjunctions which connect this class of clauses to the main clause are called subordinate conjunctions.

349. A subordinate conjunction is one that connects a dependent clause to the principal clause.

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS

350. Most subordinate conjunctions are used to make adverb clauses. These clauses will answer some one of the questions answered by adverbs. They will tell how, when, where or why the action expressed in the verb in the principal clause occurred. There are six classes of these subordinate conjunctions which are used to introduce adverb clauses. They introduce:

351. Adverb clause of time. These clauses will answer the question when and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, before, since, as, while, until, when, after and as soon as. Notice in the following sentences the difference made in the meaning of the sentences by the use of the different conjunctions:

We waited until you came.

We waited after you came.

We waited as you came.

We waited before you came.

We waited since you came.

We left while you were gone.

We left when you were gone.

We left as soon as you were gone.

352. Adverb clause of place. These answer the question where, and are introduced by the conjunctions, where, whence, whither.

I will go where you go.

The wind blows whither it listeth.

He went whence he came.

353. Adverb clauses expressing cause or reason. These will answer the question why. They are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, because, for, since, as, whereas, inasmuch as, etc.

Note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences expressed by the use of different conjunctions:

I will come because you expect me.

I will come since you expect me.

I will come as you expect me.

I will come for you expect me.

I will come inasmuch as you expect me.

354. Adverb clauses of manner. These clauses will answer the question how, and are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, as, as if, as though, etc.

Study as though you were in earnest.

Come as if you had been called.

Do as I say, not as I do.

In these clauses of manner, introduced by as if, and as though, were is used in the present form with either singular or plural subjects. For example:

He writes as if he were informed of the facts.

They talk as though they were confident of success.

You act as though I were your slave.

355. Adverb clauses of comparison. These clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions than and as. The verbs are often omitted in these dependent clauses introduced by than and as. For example: He is taller than I. The complete sentence would be: He is taller than I am. He is not so tall as I. Here the sentence would be: He is not so tall as I am.

When the pronoun occurs in these dependent clauses, be sure to use the proper form of the pronoun. It may be the subject or the object of the verb which is not expressed. For example; it is incorrect to say: I am not so tall as him. The correct form is: I am not so tall as he. The complete sentence would be: I am not so tall as he is, and the pronoun should be in the subject form, for it is the subject of the verb is, which is understood and omitted.

The use of the subject or of the object form may make a difference in the meaning of your sentence. For example, you say: I admire them as much as he. You mean that you admire them as much as he admires them. But if you say, I admire them as much as him, you mean that you admire them as much as you admire him. Quite a different meaning!

Be careful in the use of your pronouns in this way, for you can express quite a different meaning. For example, if you say, I care more for you than he, you mean, I care more for you than he cares for you. But if you say, I care more for you than him, you mean, I care more for you than I care for him. A mistake like this might mean a great deal to you some time, if the one to whom you had been speaking had been studying a course in Plain English!

356. Adverb clauses of condition. These clauses are introduced by such conjunctions as, if, provided, supposing, unless, except, otherwise, though, notwithstanding, albeit, and whether. For example:

I will come if you need me.

I will come provided you need me.

I will go notwithstanding you need me.

I will not go unless I am called.

He will not go except he is called.

He will not go though he is called.

He came, otherwise I would go.

He will go whether you go or stay.

When subordinate clauses beginning with if, though or unless are joined to clauses containing might, could, would or should, the verb were is sometimes used with a singular subject, in such sentences as:

If this were true, I should know it.

Unless I were positive, I would not say so.

Though our leader were lost, yet we would not despair.

If he were here, he would explain it himself.

If I were with you, I might make you understand.

Sometimes in sentences like these, if is omitted in the clause, and the verb placed first. For example:

Were he here, he would deny these slanders.

Were he truly class-conscious, he would oppose this war.

Were this fact known, the people would never submit.

These clauses express something which is uncertain, or which is to be decided in the future; a supposition contrary to a fact or a wish. Occasionally you will find the verb be used instead of is, in clauses of this kind introduced by if, though, unless, except, lest, etc. For example:

If it be true, I will hear it.

Though he be guilty, we will not desert him.

In subordinate clauses connected by if, unless, etc., with a principal clause which expresses future time, the present form of the verb is used in the subordinate clause. For example:

If they are willing, we will join them.

Unless he comes, I shall not leave.

If it rains, we will not go.

357. Adverb clauses expressing purpose. These are introduced by such subordinate conjunctions as, that, in order that and lest. For example:

Take good care that you understand this lesson.

I will go today in order that I may meet him.

Watch these carefully lest they be stolen.

Read the labor press that you may know the truth.

Notice that that, when used in this way, as a pure conjunction, means in order that. For example, the sentence above might read:

Read the labor press in order that you may know the truth.

358. Adverb clauses expressing result. These are introduced by the subordinate conjunction that, as for example:

They were so late that I could not go.

SUMMARY

359. We have then adverb clauses introduced by subordinate conjunctions expressing:

1. Time. Answer the question when.

2. Place. Answer the question where.

3. Cause or reason. Answer the question why.

4. Manner. Answer the question how.

5. Comparison. Used to compare.

6. Condition. Answer the question on what condition.

7. Purpose. Answer the question for what purpose.

8. Result. Answer the question to what result.

Exercise 1

In the following sentences, mark the conjunctions and tell to what class they belong; ask the question when, where, why, how, on what condition, for what purpose, to what result. Underscore the subordinate clauses. The subjects of the subordinate clauses are printed in italics.

1. Speech was developed that we might be able to communicate with one another.

2. The International failed in the crisis because it had no definite war program.

3. We will fail if we have no definite program.

4. If labor were united, we could destroy wage slavery.

5. When the people understand, they will no longer submit.

6. Labor cannot win until it learns solidarity.

7. After the terrible war is over, the workers in all countries may come closer together.

8. We are convinced of the folly of nationalism since the war has been declared.

9. If we knew the facts we could not be misled.

10. Inform yourself before you seek to teach others.

11. We must unite in order that we may possess power.

12. It is more than the heart can bear.

13. May you have courage to dare ere you have ceased to dream.

14. If we remain ignorant, we shall remain enslaved.

15. We sometimes fear to trust our own thought because it is our own.

16. Though we should lose the strike we will not despair.

17. The battle waged so fiercely that thousands were slain.

PHRASE CONJUNCTIONS

360. There are certain phrases which have come to be used together as conjunctions so commonly that we may consider them as conjunctions. They are:

As if, as though, but also, but likewise, so that, except that, inasmuch as, notwithstanding that, in order that, as well as, as far as, so far as, as little as, provided that, seeing that, etc.

Exercise 2

Write sentences using these phrase conjunctions to introduce clauses.

NOUN CLAUSES

361. We have found that there are two kinds of clauses, principal clauses and subordinate clauses.

A principal clause is one that does not depend on any word.

A subordinate clause is one that depends upon some word or words in the principal clause.

We have found, also, that these principal clauses are always connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, for they are of equal rank and importance; neither is dependent upon the other.

Subordinate clauses are always connected with the principal clause by a subordinate conjunction. The subordinate clauses which we have been studying have all been adverb clauses which are used to describe the action expressed in the verb contained in the principal clauses.

The subordinate clause in a sentence may also be used as a noun. When the subordinate clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause.

362. A noun clause is a clause used as a noun.

A noun clause may be used in any way in which a noun is used, except as a possessive. It may be used as a subject, an object, a predicate complement, or in apposition with a noun. These noun clauses may be introduced by either relative pronouns, interrogative pronouns or by conjunctions. For example:

I know who he is.

He asked, "what do you want?"

I know where it is.

In the first sentence, who he is, is a noun clause used as the object of the verb know. It tells what I know, and is the object of the verb know,—just as if I had said; I know the facts. In this sentence the noun, facts, is the object of the verb know.