Water is always being lost by the body through the “—tions”: respiration, perspiration, urination, and defecation. Strenuous activities like back-packing result in increased water loss. Dehydration is one of the most preventable hiking problems but also one of the most ignored. I’ve seen people avoid drinking for all sorts of reasons: it was too much trouble to get the water bottle out of their pack or they didn’t want to have to urinate. The bottom line is, stay hydrated. Failure to stay adequately hydrated can lead to serious and even life-threatening conditions. (See “Fluid Balance,” “Heat-Related Illnesses,” “Hypothermia,” “Hyponatremia,”.)

Keep your water bottles handy and keep drinking all day long. Drink 16+ ounces (500 milliliters) before starting to hike and then 10 to 12 ounces (200 to 300 milliliters) every 20 to 30 minutes while hiking. It is easier on your body to handle small amounts of water spread out rather than sucking down a whole quart at once. The sensation of thirst comes after the body is already low on fluid, so don’t wait until you are thirsty to drink. If your mucus membranes are dry (lips and mouth), then you are low on fluids. The best way to tell if you are adequately hydrated is to check your urine output. It should be “copious and clear.”

Keep your daily route and the availability of water in mind when you are planning your menu. If water will be scarce, you need to plan meals that do not require lots of water for cooking or rehydrating.

Season/Weather Amount/day Explanation Fall and spring backpacking* 2–3 quarts (1.8–2.8 liters) This is what an average person will need on a daily basis in a general temperate climate. Hot-weather backpacking* 3–4 quarts (2.8–3.7 liters) In hot and humid weather, you lose additional fluid through sweating, which must be replaced. Winter backpacking* 4+ quarts (3.7+ liters) In the winter, you lose moisture through evaporation to the dry air and especially through respiration. Dry air entering the lungs heats up and is exhaled saturated with moisture. *High-altitude, all seasons Add 1 quart (0.9 liters) At high altitudes the body loses more fluid. Increase your fluid intake if you are traveling at high altitudes (over 8,000 feet/2,438 meters).

Remember that these are general recommendations only. You may have different fluid requirements based on your own metabolic needs, physical condition, medical condition, age, sex (e.g., during her menstrual period, a woman will need more fluid), or different weather conditions.

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Hydration gear If your water bottle is buried in your pack there’s a good chance you won’t stop to get to it as often as you need to stay properly hydrated. There are a number of water bladders, like the Camelback and the Platypus, that use a collapsible plastic bag in a fabric liner along with a drinking tube. You can place the carrier in your pack, hang the tube on your shoulder strap, and drink as you hike. I find I stay much better hydrated with a water bladder.

MENU PLANNING

When planning food for a backpacking trip, you need to decide if cooking is a group task or a personal task. A group menu is where everyone in the group plans centralized meals and cooks and eats together versus each person cooking on his or her own. Either way there are two approaches to planning meals that can be taken. The first is a menu planned meal-by-meal (breakfast on day 1 is this, dinner is that); the second is a ration system in which you bring lots of different ingredients (pasta, rice, dried veggies, etc.) and the group creates its own menu on-the-fly. On short trips (two to six days), a meal-by-meal menu often works best. The ration approach is useful on longer trips (seven to ten+ days), as it provides room for greater flexibility and creativity. Proper menu planning means less weight to carry, less wasted food, and less food waste to pack out. Below are some important things to think about when planning your menu.

HOW LONG ARE YOU GOING TO BE OUT?

The length of your trip is essential when planning a menu. You need to bring enough food to feed everyone, but you don’t want to carry too much heavy food. For any trip, you can start with a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, which will typically last several days.

Less than a week Carry any type of fresh food that won’t spoil. At the beginning of a trip if weight is not an issue you can freeze pre-cooked foods and take them with you.

Seven to ten days Add some dehydrated or freeze-dried foods to cut down on weight.

Greater than ten days Increase the proportion of dehydrated or freeze-dried foods, or arrange for food resupply.

On longer expeditions, the types of foods you can carry become more limited. You may need to supplement your diet with vitamins and minerals to make up for nutrients that you may not be getting.

EASE OF PREPARATION

One of the things to think about in your menu planning is how you are going to cook. Are you bringing a stove, cooking on fires, or not cooking at all? If you have a stove, is it designed for extended cooking, like the MSR Whisperlite, or just to boil a small amount of water, like the Ezbit stove or the JetBoil? If you are going ultralight and have a simple “boil a cup of water” stove, then you are limited in the types of food you can cook (more prepackaged things like instant oatmeal, ramen noodles, and good old mac ’n’ cheese). Knowing how you are going to cook is a key factor in deciding what foods you are going to bring.

The one-pot meal approach is used by lots of hiking travelers. By planning your meal around the ability to cook it in one pot you can decrease cooking time and reduce the amount of fuel needed, another important weight factor for you ultralighters.

You can be much more creative with a multipot meal, but it also may require multiple stoves. Also, think about the activities of the trip. For example, on a winter camping trip where you may be having to melt snow for water, you may need a lot of your fuel and time for that task, so a quicker one-pot meal may be best.

WEIGHT

You understand what a good diet is and how many calories each person is going to need. But how are you going to carry all that? For three-season back-packing, assume that each person needs about 2 pounds (0.9 kilograms) of food per day (this increases in winter). You need to plan your menu with the weight of the food in mind. On some trips, like a rafting trip, weight may not be an issue. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

Some foods are lighter than others, and packaging, especially cans, adds weight.

Fresh foods, such as fruit or vegetables, are heavy because they contain water, but they provide a welcome treat on the trail.

You can save weight by eliminating the water carried in foods. For example, carry dried beans instead of canned beans, which contain water. Beans, chickpeas, and black-eyed peas require soaking. You can rehydrate them on the trail by placing them in a full water bottle overnight. Once soaked they will be rehydrated and ready to cook. (This also decreases the cooking time and saves stove fuel.) If you plan to rehydrate, think about water availability on your route. The other way to rehydrate beans is to place them in water, boil them for two to three minutes, and then let them soak for at least an hour. The longer the beans soak, the softer they get (but don’t soak more than 24 hours).

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Freeze-dried foods Cooked or fresh food is frozen and then the water is allowed to sublimate off. This removes about 99 percent of the water and leaves most of the nutritional value.

Dehydrated foods Dehydration is a process using heat to evaporate water slowly. About 90 percent of the water is removed during the dehydration process. Some nutrients are also lost. Dehydrated foods can take longer to cook, which adds weight back into your pack in terms of extra stove fuel.

Both freeze-dried and dehydrated foods save on weight but require significant amounts of water to rehydrate. In situations where water is limited, these foods may be a problem. Whenever you are thinking of packing prepared freeze-dried or dehydrated foods, try them out at home first. You want to know that you will like the taste and know how much it actually makes. It may say it feeds four, but after a long day of hiking, it might only feed three.

Plan your meals to use the heaviest items first and then move to lighter-weight items at the end. This way you will quickly reduce the amount of weight you will be carrying.

You can feed yourself pretty cheaply on the trail. Dried and freeze-dried foods are lightweight, but you pay more for someone to do the processing. If you have the time, you can dehydrate foods yourself with a food drier.

PACKAGING/REPACKAGING

This is important in terms of weight and minimal impact. (See “Leave No Trace Hiking and Camping.”) Glass, cans, and foils should be avoided as much as possible since they add weight and must be packed out. Glass containers are obviously unwise to carry in a backpack, unless, for example, you want to scrape the honey off the inside of your pack. A simple way to repackage any food is to use sealable plastic bags such as Ziploc or plastic bags tied with loose knots at the top. Double-bagging is important with powders and grains to prevent leakage if one bag tears. Spices often can be purchased in small plastic containers. Whenever possible, bag all the contents of a meal together and label it “Lunch Day 2,” “Dinner Day 3,” etc. Another approach is to put food items in separate stuff sacks—breakfast, lunch, and dinner.

Leave No Trace camping begins at the store. The idea is to be environmentally conscious when buying items by evaluating the packaging of different foods and brands.

Reduce the amount of packaging you buy by buying in bulk. Choose items that are bulk packaged rather than individually wrapped. Many local supermarkets and health food stores sell items in bulk, which you can repack on your own. This can also reduce your costs.

Recycle all cardboard, glass, and other original packaging when you repack your food. Look for food brands with recyclable packaging.

Reuse After a trip, plastic bags that have no holes can be washed out and reused. Other containers are reusable, too (e.g., a plastic peanut butter jar). Tupperware or other plastic containers can be reused.

SPOILAGE

On longer trips, and even short trips in hot weather, it is usually not possible to carry fresh foods or meats for very long because of spoilage. Here are some guidelines for how long different foods will keep:

Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits stay fresh for different lengths of time. Harder fruits like apples, oranges, and tangerines are best. If you buy softer fruits like pears, peaches, or nectarines, buy them before they ripen and let them ripen on the trail. Avoid putting easily smushed fruits like bananas in your pack unless you are very brave. Think about using items that are in season or grown locally over items that are brought in from far away. Reducing the impact of what we buy and where it comes from is another part of the Leave No Trace ethic.

Carrots, potatoes, garlic, onions, and other root vegetables can keep for two to three weeks.

Dried fruits last for months.

Cheeses and Dairy

Note: The ability of cheese to keep unrefrigerated for extended periods of time is primarily based on the moisture content of the cheese. Any cheese can be out for a few hours, but only some cheeses are appropriate for multiday trips.

Grated and grating cheeses (moisture content 34 percent or less) Parmesan and Romano do not need refrigeration.

Hard cheeses (moisture content 36 to 43 percent) Cheddar, Colby, and Swiss can go without refrigeration for up to a week. Over time, high temperatures result in oiling off of liquefied milk fat. Though unsightly, this is not a spoilage problem. Waxed bricks or wheels hold up best.

Semisoft cheeses (moisture content 44 to 52 percent) Brie, Camembert, blue cheese, Monterey Jack, and Muenster should be refrigerated.

Soft cheeses (moisture content greater than 50 percent) Cream cheese, ricotta, and cottage cheese require refrigeration for long-term storage.

Milk Most people take powdered milk to conserve weight. UHT (ultra-high-temperature pasteurized) milk such as Parmalat can be carried for months unopened without refrigeration. Once opened, the UHT milk must be refrigerated, but if you use it up at one meal, it’s fine.

Clarified butter Butter with the milk solids removed. It will last up to three weeks unrefrigerated.

Margarine/oils Famous (or infamous) Squeeze Parkay lasts for several weeks unrefrigerated. Or you can bring olive, sesame, or other oils to cook with instead of butter or margarine.

Meats

Hard salami, pepperoni, smoked meats, and jerky all last for weeks without refrigeration.

Canned meats and fish last “almost” forever.

Eggs

It used to be suggested that eggs could be carried unrefrigerated on trips if kept in water. Because of increases in Salmonella bacteria in chickens and the need for eggs to be cooked completely to kill the bacteria, this is no longer recommended.

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Cook before you go A number of delicious meals or add-ons can be made ahead of time and packed with you. Fresh breads, biscuits, muffins, and deserts can add a lot to a trip. Cold salads such as bean salad, houmous, and tabouli can also be made ahead of time.

Pre-cook and freeze For special meals early in the trip you can pre-cook meals and freeze them in a plastic container. Seal the container well with tape. The food will slowly melt, but should be fine for the first 24 hours. Reheat on the stove for a quick dinner.

EATING ON THE TRAIL

Everyone has different preferences for mealtimes. When hiking, you are expending energy all the time, so you constantly need to replenish that energy. This typically means eating three meals a day. Some people prefer to get up, have a light breakfast, get an early start, and then stop for a bigger meal at midday. Whatever your preference, you should have an ample supply of water and snacks during the day to keep up your energy level. Remember that more falls and injuries take place on hiking trips around 11:00 A.M. and again at 3:00 P.M. than at any other time because blood sugar is low and people are dehydrated. Plan snacks and rest breaks around these times. (See “Safety and Emergency Procedures.”)

It is also important to take into consideration the different eating habits of the group members. There may be people with food allergies, vegetarians, and those who keep kosher. It is also important to plan a variety of foods, especially for longer trips. Asking trip members about specific dietary needs before shopping will help make everyone on the trip feel included. Finally, a tip for cooking for people with particular dietary restrictions: cook whatever food cannot be eaten by everyone separately. Put it aside in a separate dish for people to add to their own plates.

GENERAL COOKING GUIDELINES, INGREDIENTS, AND RECIPES

Hygiene Before anyone handles food, make sure the person washes his or her hands thoroughly (see “Keeping Clean on the Trail,”).

Avoid Burning Your Meals Cooking on a backpacking stove is a challenging affair, since some stoves don’t simmer well and none offers the same control as a kitchen stove. Start with a clean pot to avoid burning last night’s dinner. Turn the stove on full only when you are boiling water. Otherwise, turn it down to let the food cook slowly and evenly. It may take longer to cook, but once you burn food in the pot, you’ll taste it the rest of the meal. Check periodically to see if food is sticking to the bottom. If so, turn down the heat or add water. If you are using large pots or frying pans over a small stove burner, you may need to move the pot around frequently to make sure the heat is distributed evenly.

Avoid Overcooking or Undercooking The major cause of overcooking or undercooking is adding ingredients in the wrong order. Start with freeze-dried foods first in cold water and boil for 10 to 15 minutes to re-hydrate. Next add rice or pasta. The last thing to add is thickeners like flour, potato pearls, milk, or cheese.

Spices Spices bring your meal to life. Remember that many sauces, dehydrated soups, and other stocks are already salty. It is best to let people add their own salt when the food is done, rather than oversalt while you’re cooking. Use only a little bit of spice at a time. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for spices to flavor food, so wait and taste before adding more.

Pots If you have extra pots, put water on the stove to boil for hot drinks as soon as you take the dinner pot off. This will also give you hot water for washing.

Leftovers Any solid food left over should be placed in a plastic bag and packed out. Do not bury solid food waste; animals will only dig it up.

Don’t Pack Fuel Near Food Fuel vapors are heavier than air and sink in your pack. They can penetrate plastic bags and contaminate food like trail mix. Food contaminated with fuel is considered a toxic substance and enough of it can make you sick. Carry fuel in an outside pocket of your pack away from food or in the bottom of your pack with the food packed higher up.

Cooking at Altitude At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower. This allows water to boil at lower temperatures, so you’ll need to plan longer cooking times. For foods that cook in 20 minutes or less at sea level, add 1 minute of cooking time for each 1,000 feet (310 meters) of elevation. For items that take more than 20 minutes at sea level, add 2 minutes of cooking time for each 1,000 feet (310 meters) of elevation. Something that takes 20 minutes to cook at sea level can take twice as long (40 minutes) to cook at 10,000 feet (3,048 meters). This also means that you may need significantly more stove fuel if your trip is at high altitude.

Elevation Boiling Point of Water Cooking Time Sea level 212°F (100°C) 10 minutes 5,000 feet (1,524 meters) 203°F (95°C) 15 minutes 7,500 feet (2,286 meters) 198°F (95°C) 18 minutes 10,000 feet (3,048 meters) 194°F (90°C) 20 minutes 15,000 feet (4,572 meters) 185°F (85°C) 25 minutes

SAMPLE RECIPES

To me, cooking is a lot like carpentry—the old adage, “measure twice, cut once” becomes “measure twice, cook once.” Once, when I was on a hiking skiing trip, I read a biscuit recipe too quickly and added too much water. In order to salvage the batter, I had to make enough biscuits to feed a small army for a week. By the end of the trip we were all very tired of eating biscuits. In the sample recipes below, you should adjust the quantities to fit the size (and appetites) of your group. Don’t be afraid to invent your own recipes, or check out some of the excellent hiking cookbooks available (see the Bibliography).

Most meals will be one-pot meals. These are often based on pasta, rice, or other grains. Here are the basic cooking directions for pasta and rice:

Pasta Use two parts water to one part pasta. Bring the water to a boil. Add salt (1 teaspoon per quart of water). Add the pasta and boil it gently for 10 to 15 minutes or until done. You can use the drained water for soups or carbo-loaded hot chocolate.

Instant Rice Use equal amounts of rice and water. Bring the water to a boil, add margarine (as desired) and salt (1 teaspoon per quart of water). Stir in the rice. Cover, and remove from heat. Let stand for 5 minutes, fluff with a fork and serve.

HOUMOUS

This chickpea spread is a great energy food full of protein and calories. You can make it before the trip or on the trail and pack it in a Ziploc or Tupperware, where it will easily last a week. It makes a great lunch food on pitta or crackers or a nice appetizer before dinner.

2 (12-ounce) cans chickpeas

2 tablespoons olive oil

6 tablespoons sesame tahini

Juice of 3 lemons

4 garlic cloves, minced

Mash the chickpeas with a fork. Add the olive oil, tahini, and lemon juice. If the mix is too thick, add a tablespoon or two of water. Add the garlic. Mix until smooth. Serve with slices of pitta bread. If you want to carry less weight, bring dry houmous, which can be mixed with water on the trail.

Serves 6

TUNA MELTS

This is a great hot lunch or appetizer for the days when you’re feeling lazy and don’t want to spend a lot of time cooking.

1 tablespoon margarine or oil

6 (10-inch) tortillas or pitta bread

2 (8-ounce) cans/packets tuna fish, drained

1 cup diced Cheddar cheese

Melt the margarine or heat the oil in a frying pan over medium heat. Place a tortilla in the pan and top with a thin layer of the tuna and cheese. Fold in half and cook over medium heat until the cheese is completely melted. Repeat with remaining tortillas and filling.

Serves 6

Note: If you prefer, you can use pitta pockets instead of tortillas. Slice the pocket open before placing in the frying pan, and follow the recipe, closing the pitta when the recipe tells you to fold the tortilla.

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