Wild Beasts and Their Ways, Reminiscences of Europe, Asia, Africa and America. Volume 1

To drive successfully, the beaters must not only keep a rigid line, but they must thoroughly understand the habits of the animal, and the positions of the posted guns. If the drive is thoroughly well organised, there should be eight or ten men who are experienced in the sport; these should take the management of the beat, and being distributed at intervals along the line, they should direct the operations.

A few really clever shikaris should be able (with few exceptions to the rule) to drive the tiger to any required position, so as to bring it within shot of any particular mucharn. This may be effected without extraordinary difficulty. The drive should be arranged to include three parts of a circle. If there are three guns, their positions would depend upon the quality and conditions of the ground, leaving intervals of only 80 or 100 yards at farthest between the three mucharns. From either flank, commencing only 50 yards from each mucharn, a native should be posted in a tree, and this system of watchers should be continued until they meet the extreme ends of the right and left flanks of the beating line. It will be seen that by this method there is a chain of communication established throughout the line, both flanks being in touch with the right and left mucharns by watchers in the trees only 50 yards apart. The tiger, if within the beat, will be completely encircled, as it will have the guns in front, the line of beaters in a semicircle behind, and a chain of watchers in trees from 30 to 50 yards apart from either side of the line to within sight of the mucharns. If the jungle should be tolerably open, the tiger cannot move without being seen by somebody. It now has to be driven before the beaters, and it should be induced to select a particular direction that will bring it within distance of one particular mucharn.

Each man who may be perched in the trees, which form a chain from the right and left extremities of the line, will be provided with several pieces of exceedingly dry and brittle sticks; he will hold these in readiness for use whenever he may observe the tiger. If he sees that the animal wishes to pass through the line, and thereby escape from the beat, he simply breaks a small stick in half; the sound of a snap is quite sufficient to divert the tiger from its course; it will generally stop and listen for a few moments, and then being alarmed by the unusual sound, it will again move forward, this time in the required direction, towards the guns. In this manner the animal is gradually guided by the unseen watchers in the trees, and is kept under due control, without any suspicion upon its part that it is being conducted to the fatal spot within 30 or 40 yards of the deadly aim of an experienced rifle. This leading of the tiger requires considerable skill, as much discretion is necessary in breaking the stick at the proper moment, or increasing the noise should it be deemed expedient.

As a rule, the slightest sound is sufficient to attract the attention of a driven tiger, as the animal is well aware that the shouts of a line of beaters are intended to scare it from the neighbourhood; it is accordingly in high excitement, and it advances like a sly fox slowly and cautiously, occasionally stopping, and turning its head to listen to the cries of the approaching enemy. Any loud and sudden noise would induce it to turn and charge back towards the rear, in which case it is almost certain to escape from the beat.

Some tigers are more clever than others, and having escaped upon more than one occasion, they will repeat the dodge that has hitherto succeeded. It is a common trick, should the jungle be dense and the ground much broken, for the tiger to crouch when it hears the beaters in the distance, instead of going forward in the direction of the guns. This is a dangerous stratagem, as the wary animal will lie quietly listening to the approaching line, and having waited until the beaters are within a few yards of its unexpected lair, it will charge back suddenly with a terrific roar, and dash at great speed through the affrighted men, perhaps seizing some unfortunate who may be directly in its path. I have known tigers that have been hunted many times, but who have always escaped by this peculiar dodge, and such animals are exceedingly difficult to kill. In such cases I am of opinion that no shouts or yells should be permitted, but that the line should advance, simply beating the stems of trees with their sticks; at the same time six or eight natives with their matchlocks should be placed at intervals along the line to fire at the tiger should it attempt to break through the rear. This may sometimes, but rarely, succeed in turning it, and compelling it to move in the required direction. It is a curious fact that "breaking back" is a movement general to all animals, which have an instinctive presentiment of danger in the front, if alarmed by the sound of beaters from behind. If once they determine upon a stampede to the rear, nothing will stop them, but they will rush to destruction and face any opposition rather than move forward before the line. The tiger in such cases is extremely dangerous, although when retreating in an ordinary manner before the beaters it would seldom attack a human being, but, on the contrary it would endeavour to avoid him. It is frequently the custom of tigers to remain together in a family the male, female, and a couple of half or three parts grown young ones. We cannot positively determine whether the male always remains with his family under such circumstances, or whether he merely visits them periodically; I am inclined to the latter opinion, as I think the female may be attractive during her season, which induces the male to prolong his visit, although at other periods he may be leading an independent life. Good fortune specially attends some favoured sportsmen who have experienced the intensity of happiness when a complete family of tigers has marched past their position in a drive, and they have bagged every individual member. This luck has never waited upon me, but I have seen three out of the four secured, the big and wary male, having modestly remained behind, escaping by breaking back through the line of beaters.

The tigress remains with her young until they are nearly full-grown, and she is very assiduous in teaching her cubs to kill their prey while they are extremely young. I have seen an instance of such schooling when two buffaloes were tied up about a quarter of a mile apart; one was killed, and although these two baits were mere calves, it had evidently been mangled about the neck and throat in the endeavour to break the neck. This had at length been effected by the tigress, as proved by the larger marks of teeth, while the wounds of smaller teeth and claws in the throat and back of neck showed that the cub had been worrying the buffalo fruitlessly, until the mother had interfered to complete the kill. The other buffalo calf had been attacked, and severely lacerated about the nape of the neck and throat, but it was still alive, and was standing up at the post to which it had been tied. This proved that the cub had been practising upon both these unlucky animals, and that the tigress had only interfered to instruct her pupil upon the last occasion. A dead vulture was lying near the buffalo carcase; this had been killed, probably, by the cub; the fact showed that the buffalo had been attacked that morning during daylight, and not during the preceding night, when the vultures would have been at roost.

The tigress is generally in advance of the male during a drive, should there be two together; this should not be forgotten, and a sharp look-out should be directed upon the place from whence the tigress shall have emerged, as the shot must be taken at the rearmost animal, who would otherwise disappear immediately, and break back at the sound of the explosion. In all cases it is incumbent upon the watcher to study attentively every feature of the ground directly that he enters upon his post, so that he may be prepared for every eventuality; he should thoroughly examine his surroundings, noting every little open space, every portion of dense bush, and form his opinion of the spot that would probably be the place of exit when the tiger should be driven to the margin of the covert. Tigers are frequently missed, or only slightly wounded, through utter carelessness in keeping a vigilant look-out. The watcher may have omitted to scan the details of the locality, and when unprepared for the interview, the tiger suddenly appears before him. Startled at the unexpected apparition, he fires too quickly, and with one bound the tiger vanishes from view, leaving the shooter in a state of misery at his miss, that may be imagined. Nearly all the fatalities in tiger-shooting are caused by careless shooting, which necessitates the following up a blood-track; it is therefore imperative that extreme care and coolness be observed in taking a steady aim at a vital portion of the body, that will ensure the death of the animal at latest within a few minutes. If the shot is fired at right angles with the flank, exactly through the centre of the blade-bone, the tiger will fall dead, as the heart will be shattered, and both shoulders will be broken. A shot close behind the shoulder will pass through the centre of the lungs, and death will be certain in about two minutes, but the animal will be able to inflict fatal injuries upon any person it may encounter during the first minute, before internal bleeding shall have produced complete suffocation. If the hunter is confident in the extreme accuracy of his rifle, a shot in the centre of the forehead rather above a line drawn across the eyes will ensure instant death. This is a splendid shot when the hunter sits upon an elevation and the tiger is approaching him; in that position he must be careful to aim rather high, as, should the bullet miss the forehead, it will then strike the spine at the junction of the neck; or if too high, it will break the spine between the shoulders; at any rate, the chances are all in favour of the rifle, whereas, should the aim be too low, the bullet might penetrate through the nose, and bury itself within the ground, merely wounding the animal instead of killing. Should the hunter be on foot, he must on the contrary aim low, exactly at the centre of the nose; if he is only one inch too high, the tiger may escape, as the bullet may pass over the head and back; but if the aim is low and the nose should be missed, the bullet will either break the neck, or regularly rake the animal by tearing its course through the chest and destroying the vitals in its passage along the body. In that case the .577 solid bullet of 650 grains and 6 drams of powder will produce an astonishing effect, and will completely paralyse the attack of any lion or tiger, thus establishing a thorough confidence in the heart of its proprietor.

CHAPTER VI

THE TIGER (continued)

There is no more delightful study than Natural History in its practical form, where the wild beasts and their ways are actually presented to the observer in their native lands, and he can examine their habits in their daily haunts, and watch their characters in their wild state instead of the cramped limits of zoological collections. At the same time we must confess that the animals of a menagerie afford admirable opportunities for photography, and are most instructive for a rudimentary preparation before we venture upon the distant jungles where they are to be found in their undisturbed seclusion. It is commonly supposed that wild animals that have never been attacked by fire-arms are not afraid of man, and that deer, antelopes, and various species which are extremely timid may be easily approached by human beings, as the creatures have no fear of molestation. My experience does not support this theory. Nearly all animals have some natural enemy, which keeps them on the alert, and renders them suspicious of all strange objects and sounds that would denote the approach of danger. The beasts of prey are the terror of the weaker species, which cannot even assuage their thirst in the hottest season without halting upon the margin of the stream and scrutinising the country right and left before they dare stoop their heads to drink. Even then the herd will not drink together, but a portion will act as watchers, to give notice of an enemy should it be discerned while their comrades slake their thirst.

It is a curious and inexplicable fact that certain animals and varieties of birds exhibit a peculiar shyness of human beings, although they are exposed to the same conditions as others which are more bold. We see that in every portion of the world the curlew is difficult to approach, although it is rarely or never pursued by the natives of the neighbourhood; thus we find the same species of bird exhibiting a special character whether it has been exposed to attack, or if unmolested in wild swamps where the hand of man has never been raised against it.

The golden plover is another remarkable example, as the bird is wild in every country that it inhabits, even where the report of fire-arms never has been heard. The wagtails, on the contrary, are tame and confiding throughout all places, whether civilised or savage. The swallows are the companions of the human race, nesting beneath their eaves, and sharing the shelter of their roofs in every clime. Why this difference exists in creatures subjected to the same conditions is a puzzle that we cannot explain. In like manner we may observe the difference in animals, many of which are by nature extremely timid, while others of the same genus are more bold. The beasts of prey vary in an extraordinary degree according to their species, which are in some way influenced by circumstances. Tigers and lions are naturally shy, and hesitate to expose themselves unnecessarily to danger; both these animals will either crouch in dense covert and allow the passer-by to continue his course, or slink away unobserved, if they consider that their presence is undetected. Nevertheless these animals differ in varying localities, and it is impossible to describe the habits of one particular species in general terms, as much depends upon the peculiarities of a district which may exercise an effect in influencing character. The tigers that inhabit high grass jungle are more dangerous than those which are found in forests. The reason is obvious; the former cannot be seen, neither can they see, until the stranger is almost upon them; they have accordingly no time for consideration, but they act upon the first impulse, which is either to attack in self-defence or to bound off in an opposite direction. If the same tiger were in a forest it would either see the approach or it would hear the sound of danger, and being forewarned, it would have time to listen and to decide upon a course of retreat; it would probably slink away without being seen.

Although the usual bait for a tiger is a young buffalo, there is no animal that is held in greater respect by this ferocious beast than an old bull of that species.

It is by no means an uncommon occurrence that should a tiger have the audacity to attack a buffalo belonging to a herd, the friends of the victim will immediately rush to its assistance, and the attacking party is knocked over and completely discomfited, being only too glad to effect a retreat.

A few months ago, from the date at which I am now writing, a native came to my camp with the intelligence that a large tiger had suddenly sprung from a densely wooded nullah and seized a cow that was grazing within a few yards of him. The man shouted in the hope of scaring the tiger, when two buffaloes who were near the spot and were spectators of the event at once charged the tiger at full speed, knocked it over by their onset, and followed it as it sprang for safety into the thick bush, thus saving the cow from certain destruction. The cow, badly lacerated about the throat, ran towards its native village, followed by its owner. I lost no time in arriving at the spot, about two miles from camp, and there I found the recent tracks precisely tallying with the description I had received. We organised a drive on the following morning, but the crestfallen tiger had taken the notice to quit, and had retreated from the neighbourhood.

An example of this kind is sufficient to exhibit the cautious character of the tiger. My shikari, a man of long experience, differed in opinion with the native who had witnessed the attack. This man declared that the tiger must be lying in a dense thicket covering a deep hollow of about 10 acres, to which it had retreated when charged by the two buffaloes; he advised that we should lose no time, but organise a drive at once, as the tiger, having been frightened by the buffaloes, would probably depart from the locality during the night.

My shikari argued against this suggestion. He was of opinion that the tiger might not be lying in the hollow, as there was much broken ground and jungle in the immediate neighbourhood, including many dense and deep nullahs that might have formed a retreat: if the tiger should happen to be within one of those places, it would be outside the drive, and would be frightened away by the noise of the beaters should we drive the hollow, and it would escape unseen. If, on the other hand, the tiger should be lying in any spot within a radius of half a mile, it would be very hungry, as proved by its attack upon the cow during broad daylight, and it would assuredly kill one or both of the baits, and remain with its prey, if we should tie up two young buffaloes that night; we should then be certain to have it within the drive on the following morning.

This was sound reasoning, and according to rule; but the native argued that the tiger, having been knocked over and pounded by the buffaloes, would be so cowed that it would decline to attack the young buffaloes that might be secured to trees as baits; it would, on the contrary, avoid anything in the shape of a buffalo, and if we neglected to drive the jungle at once, we should find a blank upon the following morning.

The sequel proved that the man was correct, as the buffaloes were untouched on the following day, and the tiger had disappeared from the locality.

The tiger, although hungry, was sufficiently disturbed by its defeat to abstain from any further attack; although the baits were only twelve months old, it was too shy to encounter anything in the shape of a buffalo.

In the grassy islands of the Brahmaputra there were a vast number of tigers some twelve or fourteen years ago, but their number has been reduced through the development of the country by the various lines of steamers which have improved the navigation of the river. Formerly a multitude of small islands of alluvial deposit thrown up by the impetuous current created an archipelago for 60 or 70 miles of the river's course south of Dhubri, in the direction of Mymensing; these varied in size from a few hundred yards to a couple of miles in length, and being covered with high grass and tamarisk, they formed a secluded retreat for tigers and other game at the foot of the Garo Hills. The river makes a sudden bend, sweeping near the base of this forest-covered range, from which the wild animals at certain seasons were attracted to the island pasturage and dense covert, especially when the forests had been cleaned by annual firing, and neither food nor place of refuge could be found. As these numerous islands abounded with wild pigs, hog-deer, and other varieties of game, they were most attractive to tigers, and these animals were tolerably secure from molestation, as it was impossible to shoot or even to discover them in grass 10 feet high without a line of elephants. The improvement introduced by steam navigation gave an increased impulse to cultivation, as the productions of the country could be transported at a cheap rate to Calcutta by the large barges termed flats, which are fastened upon either side of the river steamers. These are 270 feet in length, and of great beam. The steamers are from 270 to 300 feet from stem to stern, and are furnished with hurricane decks capable of stowing a large cargo, although the draught of water is limited owing to the numerous sandbanks that interrupt the channel. The peculiar conditions of the Brahmaputra, which render it necessary that these large vessels should be of very shallow draught, entail the necessity of a rudder 17 feet in length to afford a sufficient resistance for steering when running down the stream. The shock when striking upon a sandbank is sufficient to bury the stem without straining the vessel, as the flat bottom remains fixed upon the soft soil for a few moments, during which the force of the stream upon so large a surface brings the steamer broadside on to the obstruction and releases the stem. It is then an affair of an hour or more to get her off the bank by laying out kedge anchors, and heaving upon the hawsers with the steam winches.

The Brahmaputra is an extraordinary river, as it acknowledges no permanent channel, but is constantly indulging in vagaries during the season of flood; at such times it carries away extensive islands and deposits them elsewhere. Sometimes it overflows its banks and cuts an entirely new channel at a sudden bend, conveying the soil to another spot, and throwing up an important island where formerly the vessels navigated in deep water. This peculiar character of the stream renders the navigation extremely difficult, as the bed is continually changing and the captains of the steamers require a long experience.

During inundations the islands are frequently drowned out, and the wild animals are forced to swim for the nearest shore. Upon such occasions tigers have been frequently seen swimming for their lives, and they have been killed in the water by following them in boats. The captain of the steamer in which I travelled told me of a curious incident during a great inundation, which had covered deeply all the islands and transported many into new positions. Upon waking at daylight, the man who took the helm was astonished to see a large tiger sitting in a crouching attitude upon the rudder, which, as already explained, was 17 feet in length. A heavily-laden flat or barge was lashed upon either side, and the sterns of these vessels projected beyond the deck of the steamer, right and left.

The decks of these large flats were only feet above the water, and the tiger, when alarmed by a shout from the helmsman, made a leap from the rudder to the deck of the nearest vessel. In an instant all was confusion, the terrified natives fled in all directions before the tiger, which, having knocked over two men during its panic-stricken onset, bounded off the flat and sought security upon the deck of the steamer alongside. Scared by its new position and by the shouts of the people, it rushed into the first hole it could discover; this was the open door of the immense paddle-box, and the captain rushed to the spot and immediately closed the entrance, thereby boxing the tiger most completely.

There was only one gun on board, belonging to the captain: the door being well secured, there was no danger, and an ornamental air-hole in the paddle-box enabled him to obtain a good view of the tiger, who was sitting upon one of the floats. A shot through the head settled the exciting incident; and the men who were knocked over being more frightened than hurt, the affair was wound up satisfactorily to all parties except the tiger.

The progress of science in the improvement of steam navigation has had a wonderful effect throughout the world during the past half century, and it is interesting to watch the development resulting from the increased facilities of steam traffic upon the Brahmaputra. Although a residence upon the islands is accompanied by extreme risk during the period of inundations, there are many villages established where formerly the tigers held undisturbed possession; and the rich alluvial soil is made to produce abundance, including large quantities of jute, which is transported by the steamers to Calcutta. The danger of an unexpected rise in the river is always provided for, and every village possesses two or more large boats, which are carefully protected from the sun by a roof of mats or thatch, to be in readiness for any sudden emergency.

When the natives first established themselves upon the islands and along the dangerous banks of the Brahmaputra, they suffered greatly from the depredations of the numerous tigers, and in self-defence they organised a system by which each village paid a subscription towards the employment of professional shikaris. These men soon reduced the numbers of the common enemy, by setting clever traps, with bows and arrows, the latter having a broad barbed head, precisely resembling the broad arrow that is well known as the Government mark throughout Great Britain. The destruction of tigers was so great in a few years that the Lieut.-Governor of Bengal found it necessary to reduce the reward from fifty rupees to twenty-five, and tiger-skins were periodically sold by auction at the Dhubri Kutcherry at from eight annas to one rupee each.