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Тайна жизни: Как Розалинд Франклин, Джеймс Уотсон и Фрэнсис Крик открыли структуру ДНК
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Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916); Jacob H. Landman, Human Sterilization: The History of the Sexual Sterilization Movement (New York: Macmillan, 1932); Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenical Sterilization in the United States (Chicago: Municipal Court of Chicago, 1932); Paul Lombardo, Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010); Adam Cohen, Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New York: Penguin, 2016); Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), 96–112. Труднее сосчитать представителей сексуальных меньшинств, инвалидов, цыган и других «неполноценных», убитых согласно идеологии гитлеровского режима. См.: U.S. Holocaust Museum, "Documenting the Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution," https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/documenting-numbers-of-victims-of-the-holocaust-and-nazi-persecution.
52
Archibald Garrod, Garrod's Inborn Factors in Disease: Including an annotated facsimile reprint of The Inborn Factors in Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Thomas Hunt Morgan, "The Theory of the Gene," American Naturalist 51 (1917): 513–44; T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant, H. J. Muller, and C. B. Bridges, The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, revised ed. (New York: Henry Holt, 1922); T. H. Morgan, "Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila," Science 32, no. 812 (1910): 120–22; T. H. Morgan and C. B. Bridges, Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington/Press of Gibson Brothers, 1916). Пример популяционной генетики того времени см.: Raymond Pearl, Modes of Research in Genetics (New York: Macmillan, 1915).
53
Matt Ridley, Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), 33.
54
George W. Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 1901–1953: Origins and Growth (New York: Rockefeller Institute Press, 1964); E. R. Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).
55
Howard Markel, "The Principles and Practice of Medicine: How a Textbook, a Former Baptist Minister, and an Oil Tycoon Shaped the Modern American Medical and Public Health Industrial–Research Complex," Journal of the American Medical Association 299, no. 10 (2008): 1199–201; Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller (New York: Random House, 1998), 470–79.
56
René Dubos, The Professor, the Institute and DNA (New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976), 10, 161–79.
57
Robert D. Grove and Alice M. Hetzel, Vital Statistics in the United States, 1940–1960, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Center for Health Statistics (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1968), 92.
58
Frederick Griffith, "The Significance of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Hygiene 27, no. 2 (1928): 113–59.
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M. H. Dawson, "The transformation of pneumococcal types. I. The Conversion of R forms of Pneumococcus into S forms of the homologous type," Journal of Experimental Medicine 51, no. 1 (1930): 99–122; M. H. Dawson, "The Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. II. The interconvertibility of type-specific S pneumococci," Journal of Experimental Medicine 51, no. 1 (1930): 123–47; M. H. Dawson and R. H. Sia, "In vitro transformation of Pneumococcal types. I. A technique for inducing transformation of Pneumococcal types in vitro," Journal of Experimental Medicine 54, no. 5 (1931): 681–99; M. H. Dawson and R. H. Sia, "In vitro transformation of Pneumococcal types. II. The nature of the factor responsible for the transformation of Pneumococcal types," Journal of Experimental Medicine 54, no. 5 (1931): 701–10; J. L. Alloway, "The transformation in vitro of R Pneumococci into S forms of different specific types by the use of filtered Pneumococcus extracts," Journal of Experimental Medicine 55 No. 1 (1932): 91–99; J. L. Alloway, "Further observations on the use of Pneumococcus extracts in effecting transformation of type in vitro," Journal of Experimental Medicine 57, no. 2 (1933): 265–78.
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Эвери выдвигали на Нобелевскую премию тринадцать раз: в 1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1945, 1946, 1947 и 1948 гг., но безрезультатно. См.: "List of Individuals Proposing Oswald Avery and others for the Nobel Prize (1932–1948)," Oswald Avery Collection, Profiles in Science, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/CCAAFV.pdf#xml=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov:443/pdfhighlight?uid=CCAAFV&query=%28Nobel%2C%20Avery%29.
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Dubos, The Professor, the Institute and DNA, 139.
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Dubos, The Professor, the Institute and DNA, 66; Matthew Cobb, "Oswald Avery, DNA, and the Transformation of Biology," Current Biology 24, no. 2 (2014): R55– R60; Maclyn McCarty, The Transforming Principle: Discovering that Genes Are Made of DNA (New York: Norton, 1985); Maclyn McCarty, "Discovering Genes are Made of DNA," Nature 421 (2003): 406; Horace Freeland Judson, "Reflections on the Historiography of Molecular Biology," Minerva 18, no. 3 (1980): 369–421; Alan Kay, "Oswald T. Avery," in Charles C. Gillespie, ed., Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 1 (New York: Scribner's, 1970); Charles L. Vigue, "Oswald Avery and DNA," American Biology Teacher 46, no. 4 (1984): 207–11; Nicholas Russell, "Oswald Avery and the Origin of Molecular Biology," British Journal for the History of Science 21, no. 4 (1988): 393–400; M. F. Perutz, "Co-Chairman's Remarks: Before the Double Helix," Gene 135 (1993): 9–13.
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Это письмо цитирует Рене Дюбо в книге: René Dubos, The Professor, the Institute and DNA, 217–20. Оригинал письма Освальда Эвери к Рою Эвери, датированного 26 мая 1943 г., находится в материалах Освальда Эвери в Библиотеке и архиве шт. Теннесси (Нэшвилл), а также доступен онлайн: Oswald Avery Collection, Profiles in Science, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/ResourceMetadata/CCBDBF.
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O. T. Avery, C. M. Macleod, and M. McCarty, "Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types: Induction of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from Pneumococcus Type II," Journal of Experimental Medicine 79, no. 2 (1944): 137–58.
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M. McCarty and O. T. Avery, "Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. II. Effect of desoxyribosenucleic on the biological activity of the transforming substance," Journal of Experimental Medicine 83, no. 2 (1946): 89–96; M. McCarty and O. T. Avery, "Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types. III. An improved method for the isolation of the transforming substance and its application to Рneumococcus types II, III, and VI," Journal of Experimental Medicine 83, no. 2 (1946): 97–104.
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Cobb, "Oswald Avery, DNA, and the Transformation of Biology"; "List of Those Attending or Participating in the [Cold Spring Harbor on Heredity and Variation in Microorganisms] Symposium for 1946, материалы Освальда Эвери в Библиотеке и архиве шт. Теннесси в Нэшвилле (Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville).
67
H. V. Wyatt, "When Does Information Become Knowledge?," Nature 235 (1972): 86–89; Gunther S. Stent, "Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery," Scientific American 227, no. 6 (1972): 84–93.
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Письмо У. Астбери Ф. Хансону. 19 октября 1944 г., материалы Астбери, Специальное хранилище Лидсского университета, Бразертоновская библиотека (MS419, ящик Е. 152). См.: Kirsten T. Hall, The Man in the Monkeynut Coat: William Astbury and the Forgotten Road to the Double Helix (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Kirsten T. Hall, "William Astbury and the Biological Significance of Nucleic Acids, 1938–1951," Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 42 (2011): 119–28.
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Калькар считал, что Эвери должен был получить две Нобелевские премии: за открытие небелковых антигенов и за эксперименты с пневмококками. Интервью, взятое Хорасом Джадсоном у Германа Калькара в сентябре 1973 г., 484, HFJP.
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Cobb, "Oswald Avery, DNA, and the Transformation of Biology." См.: материалы Джошуа Ледерберга (Национальная медицинская библиотека США (Joshua Lederberg Papers, U.S. National Library of Medicine), https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/BB/p-nid/30.
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Joshua Lederberg, "Reply to H. V. Wyatt," Nature 239, no. 5369 (1972): 234. Ледерберг несколько раз высказывал эти предположения в своей переписке; см. также письмо Джошуа Ледерберга Морису Уилкинсу (без даты, 1973 г.); материалы Освальда Эвери, Национальная медицинская библиотека США (Oswald Avery Collection, U.S. National Library of Medicine), https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/cc/catalog/nlm: nlmuid-101584575X263-doc.
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Интервью, взятое Хорасом Джадсоном у Макса Дельбрюка 9 июля 1972 г., HFJP.
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Нобелевскую премию по физиологии и медицине 1969 г. вместе с Дельбрюком получили Сальвадор Лурия и Альфред Херши за открытия, касающиеся механизма репликации и генетической структуры вирусов. См. также: Judson, "Reflections on the Historiography of Molecular Biology," 386; и интервью, взятое Хорасом Джадсоном у Макса Дельбрюка 9 июля 1972 г., HFJP.
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Oscar Wilde, De Profundis (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1905), 63.
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James D. Watson, The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, edited by Gunther Stent (New York: Norton, 1980), 9. James D. Watson, A Passion for DNA: Genes, Genomes, and Society (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2001), 120.
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Издательство Atheneum основали Альфред Нопф – младший, Саймон Бесси и Хирам Хайдн в 1959 г. См.: Herbert Mitgang, "Atheneum Publishers Celebrates its 25th Year," New York Times, December 23, 1984, 36.
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Обстоятельства публикации «Двойной спирали» и отказ издательства Harvard Business Press от этой книги описаны в документах из архива Уильяма Брэгга, RI.MS.WLB 12/3–12/100. Брэгг написал предисловие к первоначальному изданию. Статистические данные см.: Nicholas Wade, "Twists in the Tale of the Great DNA Discovery," New York Times, November 13, 2012, D2.
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Сведения о начале жизненного пути Крика взяты из книги: Francis Crick, What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery (New York: Basic Books, 1988), 3–80. См. также: Robert Olby, Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2009); Matt Ridley, Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006); Mark S. Bretscher and Graeme Mitchison, "Francis Harry Compton Crick, O.M., 8 June 1916–28 July 2004," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 63 (2017): 159–96.
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Horace W. Davenport, "The Apology of a Second-Class Man," Annual Review of Physiology 47 (1985): 1–14.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 13.
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См.: Olby, Francis Crick, 53–54; Science Museum, "Naval Mining and Degaussing: Catalogue of an Exhibition of British and German Material Used in 1939–1954" (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1946), iv; and Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 15.
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Ridley, Francis Crick, 13.
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Olby, Francis Crick, 62; Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 15.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 18. См. также: Linus Pauling, The Nature of the Chemical Bond and the Structure of Molecules and Crystals: An Introduction to Modern Structural Chemistry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1939); Cyril Hinshelwood, The Chemical Kinetics of the Bacterial Cell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946); Edgar D. Adrian, The Mechanism of Nervous Action: Electrical Studies of the Neurone (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1932). Хиншелвуд получил Нобелевскую премию по химии в 1956 г., Эдгар Эдриан и Чарльз Шеррингтон – по физиологии и медицине в 1932 г.
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Ridley, Francis Crick, 23.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 15.
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V. V. Ogryzko, "Erwin Schrödinger, Francis Crick, and epigenetic stability," Biology Direct 3 (April 17, 2008): 15, doi:10.1186/1745–6150–3-15.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 19–23; Brenda Maddox, Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 105.
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Заявка Фрэнсиса Крика на оплату обучения лабораторным методам. 7 июля 1947 г. (Medical Research Council, Francis Crick Personal File, FD21/13), Национальный архив Великобритании (British National Archives); Olby, Francis Crick, 69–90; Ridley, Francis Crick, 26.
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H. H. Dale, "Edward Mellanby, 1884–1955," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 1 (1955): 192–222.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 19.
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Эдвард Мелланби о встрече с Фрэнсисом Криком: Edward Mellanby, memorandum of a meeting with Francis Crick, July 7, 1947, Medical Research Council, Francis Crick Personal File, FD21/13, Национальный архив Великобритании (British National Archives); Olby, Francis Crick, 69.
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Архив лаборатории Стрейнджуэйса (Кембриджская научно-исследовательская клиника), 1901–1999, PP/HBF, Honor Fell Papers, Wellcome Library, London; L. A. Hall, "The Strangeways Research Laboratory: Archives in the Contemporary Medical Archives Centre," Medical History 40, no. 2 (1996): 231–38.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 22; F. H. C. Crick and A. F. W. Hughes, "The Physical properties of cytoplasm. A Study by means of the magnetic particle method. Part I. Experimental," Experimental Cell Research 1 (1950): 3–90; F. H. C. Crick, "The Physical properties of cytoplasm. A Study by means of the magnetic particle method. Part II. Theoretical Treatment," Experimental Cell Research 1 (1950): 505–33.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 22.
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Olby, Francis Crick, 147.
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Francis Crick, "Polypeptides and proteins: X-ray studies," диссертация на соискание степени PhD (Гонвилл-энд-Киз-колледж, Кембриджский университет), июль 1953 г. FCP, PPCRI/F/2, https://wellcomelibrary.org/item/b18184534.
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Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 40.
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См.: Malcolm Longair, Maxwell's Enduring Legacy: A Scientific History of the Cavendish Laboratory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016); J. G. Crowther, The Cavendish Laboratory, 1874–1974 (New York: Science History Publications, 1974); Thomas C. Fitzpatrick, A History of the Cavendish Laboratory, 1871–1910 (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1910); Dong-Won Kim, Leadership and Creativity: A History of the Cavendish Laboratory 1871–1919 (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002); John Finch, A Nobel Fellow on Every Floor: A History of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology (Cambridge: MRC/LMB, 2008); Egon Larsen, The Cavendish Laboratory: Nursery of Genius (London: Franklin Watts, 1952); Alexander Wood, The Cavendish Laboratory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1946); Basil Mahon, The Man Who Changed Everything: The Life of James Clerk Maxwell (Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons, 2004).
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Письмо Джеймса Максвелла Л. Кэмпбеллу; см.: Lewis Campbell and William Garnet, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, with a selection from his correspondence and occasional writings and a sketch of his contributions to science (London: Macmillan, 1882), 178.
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Mahon, The Man Who Changed Everything.
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Longair, Maxwell's Enduring Legacy, 55–60.
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"Onward Christian Soldiers," слова – Сабин Бэринг-Гулд (1865), музыка – Артур Салливан (1872); см.: Ivan L. Bennett, ed., The Hymnal Army and Navy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1942), 414.
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Longair, Maxwell's Enduring Legacy, 255–318.
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Уильям Генри Брэгг занимал ряд должностей, в том числе был профессором физики в Лидсском университета (1909–1918) и возглавлял Королевскую ассоциацию Великобритании (1923–1942). В честь отца и сына Брэггов назван минерал браггит. См.: A. M. Glazer and Patience Thomson, eds., Crystal Clear: The Autobiographies of Sir Lawrence and Lady Bragg (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); John Jenkin, William and Lawrence Bragg, Father and Son: The Most Extraordinary Collaboration in Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); André Authier, Early Days of X-ray Crystallography (Oxford: Oxford University Press/International Union of Crystallography Book Series, 2013); Anthony Kelly, "Lawrence Bragg's interest in the deformation of metals and 1950–1953 in the Cavendish – a worm's-eye view," Acta Crystallographica A69 (2013): 16–24; Edward Neville Da Costa Andrade and Kathleen Yardley Londsale, "William Henry Bragg, 1862–1942," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 4 (1943): 276–300; David Chilton Phillips, "William Lawrence Bragg, 31 March 1890 – 1 July 1971. Elected F.R.S. 1921," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 25 (1979): 75–142.
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Chilton Phillips, "William Lawrence Bragg."
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"Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, Benefaction by Sir Herbert Austin, K.B.E.," editorial, Nature 137, no. 3471 (May 9, 1936): 765–66; "Cavendish Laboratory: The Austin Wing," editorial, Nature 158, no. 4005 (August 3, 1946): 160; W. L. Bragg, "The Austin Wing of the Cavendish Laboratory," Nature 158, no. 4010 (September 7, 1946): 326–27. Брэгг ходатайствовал также о представлении 37 000 фунтов на новый циклотрон и 100 000 фунтов на строительство соединения между Остиновским крылом и изначальными корпусами.
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Интервью, взятое Адамом Смитом у Джеймса Уотсона 10 декабря 2012 г.; https://old.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/watson-interview.html.
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Интервью, взятое Энн Сейр у Фрэнсиса Крика 16 июня 1970 г., ASP, ящик 2, папка 9.
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Angus Wilson, "Critique of the Prizewinners," машинописный текст статьи для The Queen, 2 января 1963 г., FCP, PP/CRI/I/2/4, box 102.
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Olby, Francis Crick, 108–9.
112
Crick, What Mad Pursuit, 50.
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Murray Sayle, "The Race to Find the Secret of Life," Sunday Times, May 5, 1968, 49–50. Уильям Лоуренс Брэгг впоследствии отрицал большую часть этого описания своих отношений с Криком. См. интервью, взятое Хорасом Джадсоном у него 28 января 1971 г., HFJP.
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Интервью, взятое автором у Джеймса Уотсона (№ 1) 23 июля 2018 г.
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Заголовок «Третий человек» взят из названия мемуаров Уилкинса, The Third Man of the Double Helix (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). The Third Man («Третий человек») (1949 год) – известный британский фильм в жанре нуар режиссера Кэрола Рида по одноименному роману Грэма Грина (Грин Г. Третий / Пер. Д. Вознякевич // Вокруг света. 1989. № 9–12).
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Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2013), 9.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 112, 113, 150.
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Интервью, взятое Энн Сейр у Мориса Уилкинса 15 июня 1970 г., ASP, ящик 4, папка 32.
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Интервью, взятое Стивеном Роузом у Мориса Уилкинса, "National Life Stories. Leaders of National Life. Professor Maurice Wilkins, FRS," C408/017 (London: British Library, 1990).
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Интервью, взятое Энн Сейр у Мориса Уилкинса 15 июня 1970 г.
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Интервью, взятое Энн Сейр у Фрэнсиса Крика 16 июня 1970 г., ASP, ящик 2, папка 9.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix; Struther Arnott, T. W. B. Kibble, and Tim Shallice, "Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins, 15 December 1916–5 October 2004; Elected FRS 1959," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 52 (2006): 455–78; интервью, взятое Стивеном Роузом у Мориса Уилкинса.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 6–7.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 16–17.
125
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 17–18.
126
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 19.
127
Edgar H. Wilkins, Medical Inspection of School Children (London: Balliere, Tindall and Cox, 1952).
128
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 31–32.
129
Eric Hobsbawm, "Bernal at Birkbeck," in Brenda Swann and Francis Aprahamian, eds., J. D. Bernal: A Life in Science and Politics (London: Verso, 1999), 235–54; Maurice Goldsmith, Sage: A Life of J. D. Bernal (London: Hutchinson, 1980); Andrew Brown, J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
130
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 41.
131
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 42.
132
Интервью, взятое Хорасом Джадсоном у Мориса Уилкинса в сентябре 1975 г., HFJP.
133
Интервью, взятое Стивеном Роузом у Мориса Уилкинса, 81.
134
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 44.
135
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 48.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 48.
137
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 49.
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M. H. F. Wilkins, "John Turton Randall, 23 March 1905–16 June 1984, Elected F.R.S. 1946," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 33 (1987): 493–535.
139
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 50, 100.
140
Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 100.
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Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix, 101.