Experiments and Observations

The existence, consequently, of any such principle in the blood, as that supposed by M. Fontana to exist there, is rendered far too problematical, even to allow me to expect that it can ever be proved: far less that it may turn out to be the same with that discovered by M. Galvani, or with that, whatever it may be, upon which the phenomena of nerves and of muscles may depend.

APPENDIX

I was unwilling to interrupt the narration of the preceding experiments, by the mention of the following facts, which they afforded me an opportunity of observing, as they were not immediately connected with the objects on account of which the experiments were instituted; and I have yet some few to relate, which, from the haste with which these sheets were prepared for the press, I had omitted to insert in their proper places.

1. In one of my first experiments, in which I had occasion to suffer a frog to remain tolerably entire, so long as contractions could be excited in any part of its body, I was surprised to find, on removing its sternum, that its heart had ceased to contract, nor could be roused by the application of any stimulus whatever, notwithstanding the contractions in its hind legs, excited by the metals, were still vigorous, and continued so for several hours afterwards. On paying particular attention to this circumstance in another frog, upon whose brain opium had been injected, I found that its legs continued excitable, upwards of forty hours longer than its heart. This discovery of the continuance of the contractile power, in the muscles of the posterior extremities, so long after its disappearance in the heart, is so contradictory to the opinion generally received upon this subject, and long established among physiologists, that I can scarcely expect it should be credited, by those who may not themselves have opportunities of observing it. It is a fact, however, of which, in the course of these experiments, I have had the most satisfactory and uniform proofs, both in such frogs as have, and in such as have not, been under the influence of opium. If a different opinion has hitherto been held by experimentalists upon this subject, it should be recollected, that, till the discovery made by Galvani, we had no means of ascertaining the presence of the contractile power of muscles, which had not, at the same time that they indicated its continuance, a tendency to destroy it, and consequently to render it impossible for us to trace its natural progress to extinction.

I have, more than once, observed the same circumstance in both cats and rabbits.

2. Dr Alexander, in his excellent Thesis already quoted, tells us, that the contractility of all the voluntary muscles of frogs was destroyed in the course of a very few minutes, by injecting eight drops of a strong solution of opium in water, (similar to that which I employed) upon the surfaces of their brains. But that the contractions of their hearts did not appear to be much, if at all, affected by this treatment. In all the similar experiments, which I have made, the event has been very different. I have not found it possible by any quantity, either of aqueous or of spirituous solution of opium, injected upon the brains of frogs, to produce that rapid extinction of the contractility of their voluntary muscles, of which Dr Alexander speaks. They commonly recovered in less than an hour, from the complete insensibility and paralysis, first occasioned by the injection of the opium, and after that time, their spontaneous motions almost always continued for several hours longer, and, by the application of the metals, contractions were excitable even for days. Their hearts, as I have already said, uniformly lost their susceptibility of the action of stimuli, long before their posterior extremities.

3. The arguments against the antiquated doctrine of transudation, through parts of a living body, are already so numerous and satisfactory, that it may be thought unnecessary to notice in this place, a decisive one so far as relates to the skin of frogs, at least, which may be deduced from the fact already mentioned; that so long as the skin was suffered to remain upon the limbs of frogs, placing them in water, very evidently preserved the contractility of their muscles, whereas when the skin was taken off, the muscles became hard, and incapable of contracting, in a very few hours. Had there been a possibility of water soaking through the skin, this difference could not possibly have had place.

4. In speaking of some of the relations, which subsist between the influence discovered by Galvani and the nerves, I omitted mentioning the following facts.

A very different effect is produced by applying the metals to the brain or spinal marrow of frogs, from what is produced by applying them to their nerves. In the latter case, I have observed, that every muscle, to which a nerve below the part touched is distributed, is brought into instant contraction. But no muscles are brought into contraction, when the metals are applied to the brain or spinal marrow, except such as derive their nerves from the part immediately in contact with the metals. The influence does not stimulate or pass along the spinal marrow, as it would along the trunk of a nerve, to affect all other nerves branching off from it.

I first became acquainted with this fact, while making the following experiment. Having laid bare the brain of a living frog, and put a stop to its spontaneous motions, by gently pressing upon the brain, I introduced a long slip of tin-foil doubled underneath a part of the skull, which had not been removed, and placed a silver probe upon its tongue. The only muscles which contracted, when the tin-foil was bent over the nose of the frog, so as to come in contact with the probe, were those which move the eyes, and the transparent membrane which defends them, those of the tongue and of the throat. When the tin-foil was twisted into a thin roll, and passed a little way down the spine, the muscles of the upper extremities and of the thorax contracted; when a little further, those of the back and of the abdomen contracted; and when, introduced still further, to where the sciatic nerves leave the spine, the posterior extremities were, for the first time, strongly convulsed. I have repeated this experiment very frequently; and have always found, that, as soon as the spontaneous motions of frogs had ceased, the contractions, excited by the metals, were uniformly progressive from the head downwards, corresponding exactly to the progress of the metals down the spine. The experiment sometimes succeeds when neither the brain nor the spinal marrow have been laid bare, and when even the skin has not been divided, but, when the frog is placed upon a plate of zinc, and one of the ends of a bent silver wire is placed upon any part of its spine, while the other is made to touch the plate.

5. As it has not been till very lately, that I have been able to procure an electropherus, I have as yet made but few experiments with it; their result, however, is such as tends still more to confirm me in the opinion, that the influence, discovered by Galvani, has no relation whatever to electricity.

Having, first, so far freed the instrument, from the small quantity of electricity collected, by wiping it, that none was indicated by a very sensible electrometer of linen-yarn, suspended from the wooden part of its handle; I placed it within a few inches of a glass stand, upon which I had laid a plate of zinc, supporting a frog recently killed, and with its sciatic nerves within the abdomen laid bare. A bar of zinc formed the communication between the frog and the metal plate of the electropherus. Contractions were then excited in the frog, by placing one end of a bent silver wire, insulated in sealing wax, upon the nerves of the frog, and the other end upon the bar of zinc. After strong contractions had, in this way, been kept up for about half a minute, I carefully removed the bar of zinc, by means of a stick of wax, that there might be no possibility of the electricity escaping, if any should have been collected. The metal plate was then raised from the varnished surface. The electrometer attached to its handle was very slightly affected; but a fine thread, presented to the plate, was perceptibly attracted by it.

I had a strong suspicion, that the electricity, thus collected, had been excited solely by the friction of the frog’s legs during contraction, against the insulated plate of zinc upon which it lay; and I soon found that my conjecture was just; for an equal quantity of electricity was obtained from another frog similarly disposed, when contractions were excited in it, by merely mechanical irritation.

The result was the same when these frogs were laid successively upon the metal plate of the electropherus itself, and excited, the one in M. Galvani’s method, the other by mechanical irritation only.

These experiments were very frequently repeated, but the quantity of electricity collected was always greater where the contractions, or, in other words, the friction had been most considerable, and did not, in any instance, appear to depend on the means employed to excite the contractions.

What still further proves, that the electricity, in this way collected, had no dependence whatever, for its production, upon the application of the metals to the frog, but had been merely the portion of electricity, naturally possessed by the frog, in common with other conducting substances, is, that when the electricity, which was collected from its first contractions, had been drawn off from the plate, no more could afterwards be collected, although the contractions, excited by the metals, still continued as vigorous as ever.

6. When the electropherus was charged with electricity, as highly as it was possible to charge it by friction, the contractions produced by the insulated metals in a prepared frog, laid upon the metal plate of the electropherus, were not at all affected by raising it from the varnished surface. A proof that the phenomena in question are not affected, either by the condensation or rarefaction of the electricity, in either the animal or the metals, by which they are exhibited.

I have not found, that any quantity of electricity, which I could accumulate in the metal plate of the electropherus, did ever, when discharged into the nerve of a frog, excite contractions nearly so strong as what are excited by the application of zinc and silver; nor could I, at any time, collect a sufficient quantity of electricity, from five insulated frogs, sufficient to excite contractions in a single leg of a frog, though recently separated from its body, and consequently excitable by stimuli of very weak powers.

The politeness of the very learned Mr Robison, Professor of Natural Philosophy in this University, enables me to lay before the public the following communication; which, independent of its intrinsic merit, affords an additional gratification, by evincing the great interest taken in the subject, by one whose abilities and extensive knowledge so well qualify him for giving it a full investigation.

To Mr Fowler,

Edin. May 28. 1793.

SIR,

About a fortnight ago, my son told me of a curious experiment, with a piece of zinc and a piece of silver applied to the tongue, by which a strong irritation, resembling taste, was produced, and that a luminous flash was excited, by applying one of them to the eye. I immediately repeated them according to his directions, and my curiosity was greatly excited to prosecute them in a variety of circumstances. I understand, that these experiments have originated from the curious discoveries made some time ago in Italy, of which I was informed last winter. But I have been so much out of the world for some years past, that I have had no opportunity of knowing what was going forward.

Being informed, that you have been long engaged in experiments on this subject, and are about to favour the public with an account of them, I have taken the liberty of communicating to you, a few facts which have occurred to me, some of which, perhaps, may be new to you.

1. I find, that if a piece of zinc be applied to the tongue, and be in contact with a piece of silver, which touches any part of the lining of the mouth, nostrils, ear, urethra, or anus, the sensation resembling taste is felt on the tongue. If the experiment be inverted, by applying the silver to the tongue, the irritation produced by the zinc is not sensible, except in the mouth and the urethra, and is very slight. I find the irritation by the zinc strongest when the contact is very slight, and confined to a narrow space, and when the contact of the silver is very extensive, as when the tongue is applied to the cavity of a silver spoon. When the zinc touches in an extensive surface, the irritation produced by a narrow contact of the silver is very distinct, especially on the upper side of the tongue, and along its margin. This irritation seems to be mere pungency, without any resemblance to taste, and it leaves a lasting impression, like that made by caustic alcali.

2. If the zinc (finely polished) be applied to the ball of the eye, the brightness of the flash seems to correspond with the surface of contact, of the silver with the tongue, palate, fauces or cheek. The same thing happens when the silver is applied to the eye.

3. When a rod of zinc, and one of silver are applied to the roof of the mouth, as far back as possible, the irritations produced, by bringing their outer ends into contact, are very strong, and that by the zinc resembles taste, in the same manner as when applied to the tongue.

4. I had been paring my toe nails with scizzars, and had cut off a considerable portion of the thick skin, so that the blood began to ooze through, in the middle of the wound. I applied the zinc there, and an extensive surface of silver to the tongue. Every time I brought the metals into contact, I felt a very smart irritation by the zinc at the wound.

5. I made a piece of zinc having a sharp point, projecting laterally from its end. I applied this point to a hole in a tooth, which has sometimes ached a little, and applied the silver in an extensive surface to the inside of the cheek. When the metals were brought into contact, I felt a very smart and painful twitch in the tooth, perfectly resembling a twitch of the toothack. I thought this twitch double, and that one of them happened before the metals came into absolute contact. I am now almost convinced, that this is the case, for when I make the silver rest on a dry tooth, without touching the tongue or fauces, I have no twitch on bringing the outer ends of the metals together: showing that there is not a proper communication through a dry tooth. If, while the outer ends remain in contact, I touch the silver with the tip of the tongue, still no twitch is felt in the tooth. If I now separate the outer ends of the metals, keeping the tongue applied to the silver, a slight twitch is felt in the moment of separation, and a strong double twitch when they are again brought into contact. N. B. This twitch is prevented, by allowing the tongue or lip to touch any part of the zinc.

6. I had a number of pieces of zinc made of the size of a shilling, and made them up into a rouleau, with as many shillings. I find that this alternation, in some circumstances, increases considerably the irritation, and expect, on some such principle, to produce a still greater increase. If the side of the rouleau be applied to the tongue, so that all the pieces are touched by it, the irritation is very strong and disagreeable. This explains what I have often observed, the strong taste of soldered seams of metal. I can now perceive seams in brass and copper vessels by the tongue, which the eye cannot discover, and can distinguish the base mixtures which abound in gold and silver trinkets.

If any of the above facts can add to the stock of knowledge you have acquired on this subject, it will give me great satisfaction, and I shall not fail to communicate any thing which may afterwards occur. My indisposition hinders me from taking an active part in the researches, to which this wonderful and important discovery incites; but it is both my duty and my earnest wish, to contribute my feeble assistance to every gentleman engaged in this interesting pursuit.

I find that common silver thread makes a very good conductor, and this to any distance.

Since writing the above, I have found a very easy way of producing very sensible convulsions, (I think muscular) and corroborating my opinion, that the communication (of this part of the whole effect) takes place before contact.

Put a plate of zinc into one cheek, and a plate of silver, (a crown piece) into the other, at a little distance from each. Apply the cheeks to them as extensively as possible. Thrust in a rod of zinc between the zinc and the cheek, and a rod of silver between the silver and the other cheek. Bring their outer ends slowly into contact, and a smart convulsive twitch will be felt in the parts of the gums situated between them, accompanied by bright flashes in the eyes. And these will be distinctly perceived before contact, and a second time on separating the ends of the rods, or when they have again attained what may be called the striking distance. If the rods be alternated, no effect whatever is produced.

Care must be taken, not to press the pieces hard to the gums; this either hinders us from perceiving the convulsion, or prevents it. I find too, that one rod, whether zinc or silver, is sufficient for the communication, and even bringing the two pieces together, will do as well, or perhaps better. But the rods are easier in the management.

Asking pardon for the liberty I have taken, without having the honour of your acquaintance, I am,

With great regard,SIR,Your most obedientHumble servant,JOHN ROBISON.FINIS

1

Cavallo.

2

On this metal Cronstedt has the following very curious remark: “It seems to become electrical by friction, and then its smaller particles are attracted by the loadstone; which effects are not yet properly investigated.” Zinc is an ingredient of the best amalgam for smearing the rubbers of electrical machines: But I have not been able to render a bar of zinc electrical by friction, nor to find that its smaller particles were in any state attracted by the loadstone, unless they had been scraped off by means of an instrument of iron. But, in this way, the dust of any metal is rendered susceptible of the influence of the loadstone.

3

If further experiments should establish decidedly, that the mutual contact of two different metals is absolutely necessary for the productions of Galvani’s phenomena, may not this circumstance afford an useful test of the purity of the precious metals? For instance, contractions in an animal produced by the contact of a piece of gold or silver, whose purity we wish to ascertain, with a piece of the same metal known to be pure, would then prove incontestably the presence of alloy.

4

In an able lecture, which Dr Monro lately delivered, chiefly upon this subject, he demonstrated the possibility of exciting contractions in the limb of a frog, without either of the metals he employed being in contact with it; or having any other communication with it than through the medium of some moist substance. In varying this experiment, I find, that if a frog be divided in two parts, just above the origin of the sciatic nerves, and put into a bason of water, the hind legs may be thrown into strong contractions, by bringing zinc, or tin-foil, and silver, in contact with each other, at the distance of at least an inch from the divided spine, so long as they are kept nearly in a right line with it. Water, in this case, is the only communication between the metals and the origin of the nerves.

5

The contractions produced seemed to be strong in proportion to the extent of the surfaces of the metals in contact, strongest when a large plate of zinc is laid horizontally upon a large plate of silver or gold. If the zinc be suffered to remain in contact with the silver, for a little time, the contractions of the leg cease. The zinc may then be slid over the silver, till it even touch the leg without renewing the contractions: but, in withdrawing the silver, the leg contracts at the instant the silver parts from it!

6

‘L’eau trop échauffée, ou qui est en éboullition, disperse l’électricité, de manière à en détruire les phenomènes.’

‘L’excès du froid prive l’eau même de la propriété de conduire le fluide en question.’ —Dr Valli, Lettre 9me.

7

It was in this way, indeed, that I have always excited contractions, when I have employed this new mode of influencing animals, as a test of remaining life in any part of them.

They were constantly kept in fresh water, as the situation most natural to them, during the whole of the time they were under experiment; and their skins were suffered to remain as entire as possible, since I found their muscles lost their contractile power, in a few hours, and became rigid when exposed, deprived of their skins, to the action of the water.

8

M. Fontana, in the first volume of his work on Poisons, mentions some facts, which may, to some, appear to give considerable countenance to this explanation. The microscopical eels found in dry and smutty wheat; the seta equina or gordius of Linnaeus; and the wheal polypus, all, when dry, become apparently dead: but again recover motion and life when moistened with water. One of the latter was put, by M. Fontana, upon a bit of glass, and exposed, during a whole summer, to the noon-day sun. It became so dry that it was like a piece of hardened glue. A few drops of water, however, did not fail to restore it to life. Another was, in this way, recovered after a similar exposure of a year and a half. Father Gumillo, a Jesuit, and the Indians of Peru, are quoted by the same author, on the authority of Bonguer, as speaking of ‘a large and venemous snake, which being dead and dried in the open air, or in the smoke of a chimney, has the property of coming again to life, on its being exposed, for some days, to the sun, in a stagnant and corrupted water.’

But it would almost require the credulity of an Indian to credit the testimony of the Jesuit.

9

Since what I had before written upon this subject went to the press, I have been informed by a friend, that Dr Lind of Windsor has found, that contractions may be excited in a frog by touching it with iron alone. In a frog very recently killed, I have myself, sometimes, excited contractions, by touching its nerves with iron and steel in conjunction. But I can by no means consider this as a satisfactory proof, that contractions may be excited by the contact of one metal alone; since I have never been able to excite contractions with a piece of iron, of the same quality throughout, applied to a frog which had been so long dead as to leave no suspicion that the contractions were occasioned by mechanical irritation. In Dr Valli’s experiment, with scissars of bad steel, upon a frog recently killed, these circumstances do not appear to have been sufficiently attended to.

10

Phil. Trans. vol. 72. part i. Appen.

11

I have not been at the pains to inform myself, who first was the author of this doctrine; but its adoption by Caldani, by Haller, and by Fontana, and by all upon the faith of experiment, was certainly sufficient to give it currency, in opposition to that of Willis, Lower, Kaau, Boerhaave, Laghi, and even of the ingenious Whytt.

12

Mem. Med. Soc. Lond. vol. iii.

13

Essays Physical and Literary.

14

This solution, which is the same that I employed in all my subsequent experiments, was of the same strength with that used by Dr Alexander in the greater number of his, viz. an ounce of crude opium mixed in a mortar with two ounces and a half of water, and filtered through paper, after having remained twelve hours, in a close corked bottle, near a chamber fire.