Astronomical Curiosities: Facts and Fallacies

With reference to the constellation Hercules, Admiral Smyth says —

“The kneeling posture has given rise to momentous discussion; and whether it represents Lycaon lamenting his daughter’s transformation, or Prometheus sentenced, or Ixion ditto, or Thamyrus mourning his broken fiddle, remains still uncertain. But in process of time, this figure became a lion, and Hyginus mentions both the lion’s skin and the club; while the right foot’s being just over the head of the Dragon, satisfied the mythologists that he was crushing the Lernæan hydra… Some have considered the emblem as typifying the serpent which infested the vicinity of Cape Tænarus, whence a sub-genus of Ophidians still derives its name. At all events a poet, indignant at the heathen exaltation of Hevelius, has said —

“‘To Cerberus, too, a place is given —His home of old was far from heaven.’”397

Aratus speaks of Hercules as “the Phantom whose name none can tell.”

There were several heroes of the name of Hercules, but the most famous was Hercules the Theban, son of Jupiter and Alcmene wife of Amphitryon, King of Thebes, who is said to have lived some years before the siege of Troy, and went on the voyage of the Argonauts about 1300 B.C. According to some ancient writers, another Hercules lived about 2400 B.C., and was a contemporary of Atlas and Theseus. But according to Pétau, Atlas lived about 1638 B.C., and Lalande thought that this chronology is the more probable.

The small constellation Lyra, which contains the bright star Vega, is called by Al-Sufi the Lyre, the Goose, the Persian harp, and the Tortoise. In his translation of Al-Sufi’s work, Schjellerup suggests that the name “Goose” may perhaps mean a plucked goose, which somewhat resembles a Greek lyre, and also a tortoise. The name of the bright star Vega is a corruption of the Arabic vâki. Ptolemy and Al-Sufi included all the very brightest stars in the “first magnitude,” making no distinction between them, but it is evident at a glance that several of them, such as Arcturus and Vega, are brighter than an average star of the first magnitude, like Aldebaran.

The constellation Perseus, which lies south-east of “Cassiopeia’s Chair,” may be recognized by the festoon formed by some of its stars, the bright star α Persei being among them. It is called by Al-Sufi “barschânsch, Περσεύς, Perseus, who is hamil râs al-gul, the Bearer of the head of al-gul.” According to Kazimirski, “Gul was a kind of demon or ogre who bewilders travellers and devours them, beginning at the feet. In general any mischievous demon capable of taking all sorts of forms.” In the Greek mythology Perseus was supposed to be the son of Jupiter and Danæ. He is said to have been cast into the sea with his mother and saved by King Polydectus. He afterwards cut off the head of Medusa, one of the Gorgons, while she slept, and armed with this he delivered Andromeda from the sea-monster.

The constellation Auriga lies east of Perseus and contains the bright star Capella, one of the three brightest stars in the northern hemisphere (the others being Arcturus and Vega). Theon, in his commentary on Aratus, says that Bellerophon invented the chariot, and that it is represented in the heavens by Auriga, the celestial coachman. According to Dupuis, Auriga represents Phæton, who tried to drive the chariot of the sun, and losing his head fell into the river Eridanus. The setting of Eridanus precedes by a few minutes that of Auriga, which was called by some of the ancient writers Amnis Phaï-tontis.398 Auriga is called by Al-Sufi numsick al-ainna– He who holds the reins, the Coachman; also al-inâz, the She-goat. M. Dorn found in Ptolemy’s work, the Greek name ‘Ηνίοχοι, Auriga, written in Arabic characters. Al-Sufi says, “This constellation is represented by the figure of a standing man behind ‘He who holds the head of al-gûl’ [Perseus], and between the Pleiades and the Great Bear.”

Capella is, Al-Sufi says, “the bright and great star of the first magnitude which is on the left shoulder [of the ancient figure] on the eastern edge of the Milky Way. It is that which is marked on the astrolabe as al-aijûk.” The real meaning of this name is unknown. Schjellerup thought, contrary to what Ideler says, that the name is identical with the Greek word Αϊξ (a goat). Capella was observed at Babylon about 2000 B.C., and was then known as Dilgan. The Assyrian name was Icu, and the Persian name colca. It was also called Capra Hircus, Cabrilla, Amalthea, and Olenia. In ancient times the rising of Capella was supposed to presage the approach of storms. Ovid says, “Olenia sidus pluviale Capellæ.”

The constellation Aquila is called by Al-Sufi al-ukab, the Eagle, or al-nasr al-tâïr, the flying vulture. According to the ancient poets the eagle carried nectar to Jupiter when he was hidden in a cave in Crete. This eagle also assisted Jupiter in his victory over the Giants and contributed to his other pleasures. For these reasons the eagle was consecrated to Jupiter, and was placed in the sky. Al-Sufi says, “There are in this figure three famous stars [γ, α, and β Aquilæ], which are called al-nasr al-tâïr.” Hence is derived the modern name Altair for the bright star α Aquilæ. Al-Sufi says that the “common people” call “the three famous stars” al-mîzân, the Balance, on account of the equality of the stars.” This probably refers to the approximately equal distances between γ and α, and α and β, and not to their relative brightness. He says “Between the bright one of the tail [ξ Aquilæ] and the star in the beak of the Hen [β Cygni] in the thinnest part of the Milky Way, we see the figure of a little earthen jar, of which the stars begin at the bright one in the tail, and extend towards the north-west. [This seems to refer to ε Aquilæ and the small stars near it.] They then turn towards the east in the base of the jar, and then towards the south-east to a little cloud [4, 5, etc. Vulpeculæ, a well-known group of small stars] which is found to the north of the two stars in the shaft of the Arrow [α and β Sagittæ]. The cloud is on the eastern edge of the jar, and the bright one on the tail on the western edge; the orifice is turned towards the flying Vulture [Aquila], and the base towards the north. Among these are distinguished some of the fourth, fifth, and sixth magnitudes [including, probably, 110, 111, 112, 113 Hercules, and 1 Vulpeculæ] and Ptolemy says nothing of this figure, except the bright star in the tail of the Eagle” (see figure). The above is a good example of the minute accuracy of detail in Al-Sufi’s description.

The southern portion of Aquila was formerly called Antinous, who was said to have been a young man of great beauty born at Claudiopolis in Bithynia, and drowned in the Nile. Others say that he sacrificed his life to save that of the Emperor Hadrian, who afterwards raised altars in his honour and placed his image on coins.399

The constellation Pegasus, Al-Sufi says, “is represented by the figure of a horse, which has the head, legs, and forepart of the body to the end of the back, but it has neither hind quarters nor hind legs.” According to Brown, Pegasus was the horse of Poseidon, the sea god. Half of it was supposed to be hidden in the sea, into which the river Eridanus flowed.400 In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the winged horse produced by the blood which fell from the head of Medusa when she was killed by Perseus! Some think that it represents Bellerophon’s horse, and others the horse of Nimrod. It was also called Sagmaria and Ephippiatus, and was sometimes represented with a saddle instead of wings.

In describing the constellation Andromeda, Al-Sufi speaks of two series of stars which start from the great nebula in Andromeda; one series going through 32 Andromedæ, π, δ, and ε to ζ and η; and the other through ν, μ, β Andromedæ into the constellation Pisces. He says they enclose a fish-shaped figure called by the Arabians al-hût, the Fish, par excellence. He speaks of two other series of stars which begin at τ and υ, and diverging meet again at χ Persei, forming another “fish-like figure.” The eastern stream starts from τ and passes through 55, γ, 60, 62, 64, and 65 Andromedæ; and the western stream from υ through χ 51, 54, and g Persei up to χ Persei. The head of the first “fish,” al-hût, is turned towards the north, and that of the second towards the south (see figure).

Al-Sufi says that the stars α Persei, γ, β, δ, and α Andromedæ, and β Pegasi form a curved line. This is quite correct, and this fine curve of bright stars may be seen at a glance on a clear night in September, when all the stars are high in the sky.

The first constellation of the Zodiac, Aries, the Ram, was called, according to Aratus and Eratosthenes, κρίος. It is mentioned by Ovid under the name of Hellas. It was also called by the ancients the Ram with the golden horns. Manilius (fourth century B.C.) called it “The Prince.” It is supposed to have represented the god Bel. Among the Accadians the sign meant “He who dwells on the altar of uprightness.” It first appears on the Egyptian Zodiac; and it was sacred to Jupiter Ammon. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to represent the ram, the loss of whose fleece led to the voyage of the Argonauts. In the time of Hipparchus, about 2000 years ago, it was the first sign of the Zodiac, or that in which the sun is situated at the Vernal Equinox (about March 21 in each year). But owing to the precession of the equinoxes, this point has now moved back into Pisces.

The brightest star of Aries (α) is sometimes called Hamal, derived from the Arabic al-hamal, a name given to the constellation itself by Al-Sufi. In the Accadian language it was called Dilkur, “the dawn proclaimer.” Ali-Sufi says that close to α, “as if it were attached to it,” is a small star of the 6th magnitude, not mentioned by Ptolemy. This is clearly κ Arietis. The fact of Al-Sufi having seen and noticed this small star, which modern measures show to be below the 5th magnitude, is good evidence of his keen eyesight and accuracy of observation.

According to Al-Sufi, the stars β and γ Arietis were called by the Arabians al-scharatain, “the two marks.” They marked the “first mansion of the moon,” and ε, δ, and ρ the second mansion. With reference to these so-called “mansions of the moon,” Admiral Smyth says —

“The famous Manazil al-kamar, i.e. Lunar mansions, constituted a supposed broad circle in Oriental astronomy divided into twenty-eight unequal parts, corresponding with the moon’s course, and therefore called the abodes of the moon. This was not a bad arrangement for a certain class of gazers, since the luminary was observed to be in or near one or other of these parts, or constellations every night. Though tampered with by astrologers, these Lunar mansions are probably the earliest step in ancient astronomy.”401

Taurus, the second constellation of the Zodiac, was in ancient times represented by the figure of a bull, the hinder part of which is turned towards the south-west, and the fore part towards the east. It had no hind legs, and the head was turned to one side, with the horns extended towards the east. Its most ancient name was Te, possibly a corruption of the Accadian dimmena, “a foundation-stone.” The Greek name is ἀθώρ (θωώρ, Eusebius). In the old Egyptian mythology Taurus represented the god Apis. According to Dupuis it also represented the 10th “labour of Hercules,” namely, his victory over the cows of Geryon, King of Spain.402 It was also supposed to represent the bull under the form of which Jupiter carried off Europa, daughter of Agenor, King of the Phœnicians. It may also refer to Io or Isis, who is supposed to have taught the ancient Egyptians the art of agriculture.

Aldebaran is the well-known bright red star in the Hyades. It was called by Ptolemy Fulgur succularum. Ali-Sufi says it was marked on the old astrolabes as al-dabaran, “the Follower” (because it follows the Hyades in the diurnal motion), and also ain al-tsaur, the eye of the bull. It may be considered as a standard star of the 1st magnitude. Modern observations show that it has a parallax of 0″·107. It is receding from the earth, according to Vogel, at the rate of about 30 miles a second; but even with this high velocity it will take thousands of years before its brightness is perceptibly diminished. It has a faint companion of about the 10th magnitude at the distance of 118″, which forms a good “light test” for telescopes of 3 or 4 inches aperture. I saw it well with a 4-inch Wray in the Punjab sky. The Hyades were called Succulæ by the Romans, and in the Greek mythology were said to be children of Atlas.

The star β Tauri, sometimes called Nath, from the Arabic al-nátih, the butting, is a bright star between Capella and γ Orionis (Bellatrix). It is on the tip of the horn in the ancient figure of Taurus, and “therefore” (says Admiral Smyth) “at the greatest distance from the hoof; can this have given rise to the otherwise pointless sarcasm of not knowing B from a bull’s foot?”403 Al-Sufi says that an imaginary line drawn from the star now known as A Tauri to τ Tauri would pass between υ and κ Tauri, which is quite correct, another proof of the accuracy of his observations. He also says that the star ω Tauri is exactly midway between A and ε, which is again correct. He points out that Ptolemy’s position of ω is incorrect. This is often the case with Ptolemy’s positions, and tends to show that Ptolemy adopted the position given by Hipparchus without attempting to verify their position in the sky. Al-Sufi himself adopts the longitudes and latitudes of the stars as given by Ptolemy in the Almagest, but corrects the positions in his descriptions, when he found Ptolemy’s places erroneous.

The famous group of the Pleiades is well known; but there is great difficulty in understanding Al-Sufi’s description of the cluster. He says, “The 29th star (of Taurus) is the more northern of the anterior side of the Pleiades themselves, and the 30th is the southern of the same side; the 31st is the following vertex of the Pleiades, and is in the more narrow part. The 32nd is situated outside the northern side. Among these stars, the 32nd is of the 4th magnitude, the others of the 5th.” Now, it is very difficult or impossible to identify these stars with the stars in the Pleiades as they are at present. The brightest of all, Alcyone (η Tauri), now about 3rd magnitude, does not seem to be mentioned at all by Al-Sufi! as he says distinctly that “the brightest star” (№ 32 of Taurus) is “outside” the Pleiades “on the northern side.” It seems impossible to suppose that Al-Sufi could have overlooked Alcyone had it the same brightness it has now. The 32nd star seems to have disappeared, or at least diminished greatly in brightness, since the days of Al-Sufi. More than four stars were, however, seen by Al-Sufi, for he adds, “It is true that the stars of the Pleiades must exceed the four mentioned above, but I limit myself to these four because they are very near each other and the largest [that is, the brightest]; this is why I have mentioned them, neglecting the others.” A full examination of the whole question is given by Flammarion in his interesting work Les Étoiles (pp. 289-307), and I must refer my readers to this investigation for further details.

According to Brown, Simonides of Keos (B.C. 556-467) says, “Atlas was the sire of seven daughters with violet locks, who are called the heavenly Peleiades.”404 The name is by some supposed to be derived from the Greek πλείων, full. The Old Testament word Kimah (Job ix. 9 and xxviii. 31) and Amos (v. 8) is derived from the Assyrian Kimta, a “family.” Aratus describes the Pleiades in the following lines: —

“Near his405 left thigh together sweep alongThe flock of Clusterers. Not a mighty spanHolds all, and they themselves are dim to see,And seven paths aloft men say they take,Yet six alone are viewed by mortal eye.These seven are called by name AlkyonîKelainî, Meropî and SteropîTaygetî, Elecktrî, Maia queen.They thus together small and faint roll onYet notable at morn and eve through Zeus.”406

The Pleiades are mentioned by Ovid. According to the ancient poets they were supposed to represent the children of Atlas and Hesperus, and on this account they were called Atlantids or Hesperides. From the resemblance in sound to the word πλείας, a pigeon, they were sometimes called “the doves,” and for the same reason the word πλεῖν, to navigate, led to their being called the “shipping stars.” The word πλείας was also applied to the priestesses of the god Zeus (Jupiter) at Dordona, in the groves of which temple there were a number of pigeons. This is, perhaps, what Aratus refers to in the last line of the extract quoted above. According to Neapolitan legends, the name of Virgil’s mother was Maia. The mother of Buddha, the Hindoo avatar, was also named Maia. In Italy the Pleiades were called Gallinata, and in France poussinière, both of which mean the hen and chickens, a term also given to them by Al-Sufi. The old Blackfoot Indians called them “The Seven Perfect Ones.” The Crees and Ojibway Indians called them the “Fisher Stars.” The Adipones of Brazil and some other nations claimed that they sprang from the Pleiades! The Wyandot Indians called them “The Singing Maidens.”

Photographs show that the brighter stars of the Pleiades are involved in nebulosity. That surrounding Maia seems to be of a spiral form. Now, there is a Sanscrit myth which represents Maia as “weaving the palpable universe,” for which reason she was “typified as a spider.” This seems very appropriate, considering the web of nebulous light which surrounds the stars of the group. Maia was also considered as a type of the universe, which again seems appropriate, as probably most of the stars were evolved from spiral nebulæ.

The name Hyades is supposed to be derived from the Greek word ὑεῖν, to rain, because in ancient times they rose at the rainy season.

In ancient Egypt, Aldebaran was called ary; and the Pleiades chooa, a word which means “thousands.” The name Aldebaran seems to have been originally applied to the whole of the Hyades group. Aldebaran was also called by the Arabians al-fanik, the great Camel, and the Hyades al-kilas, the young Camels. The two close stars υ and κ Tauri were called al-kalbaïn, the dogs of Aldebaran. La Condamine states that the Indians of the Amazon saw in the Hyades the head of a bull.

Gemini, the Twins, is the third constellation of the Zodiac. It was also called Gemelli, etc. According to Dupuis it represents the 11th “labour of Hercules” – his triumph over the dog Cerberus.407 But some of Dupuis’ ideas seem very fanciful. The Twins are usually called Castor and Pollux, but they were also called by the ancient writers Apollo and Hercules; Jason and Triptolemus; Amphion and Zethus; and Theseus and Peritheus. In Egypt they represented the deities Horus and Hippocrates. Brown thinks that the “Great Twins” were originally the sun and moon, “who live alternately. As one is born the other dies; as one rises the other sets.”408 This applies to the full moon, but does not seem applicable to the other lunar phases.

Gemini was the constellation to which Dante supposed himself transported when he visited the stellar heavens.409 He says he was born under the influence of this “sign.”

Cancer, the Crab, is the next sign of the Zodiac. In the Greek mythology it was supposed to have been placed in the sky by Juno to commemorate the crab which pinched the toes of Hercules in the Lernæan marsh. The Greek name was τυβί. According to Dupuis it represents the 12th “labour of Hercules” – his capture of the golden apples in the Garden of the Hesperides, which were guarded by a Dragon. This Dragon is Draco, which was also called Custos Hesperidum.410 But the connection between a crab and the myth of the golden apples is not obvious – unless some reference to “crab apples” is intended! Among the Romans, Cancer was consecrated to Mercury, and by the ancient Egyptians to their god Anubis.

The well-known cluster in Cancer called the Præsape, Al-Sufi says, is “a little spot which resembles a cloud, and is surrounded by four stars, two to the west [η and θ Cancri] and two to the east” [γ and δ]. This cluster is mentioned by Aratus, who calls it the “Manger.” The word Præsape is often translated “Beehive,” but there can be no doubt that it really means “Manger,” referring to the stars γ and δ Cancri, which the ancients called Aselli, the ass’s colts. These were supposed to represent the asses which in the war of Jupiter against the Giants helped his victory by their braying!

Admiral Smyth says in his Bedford Catalogue (p. 202) that he found γ and δ Cancri both of 4th magnitude; but the photometric measures show that δ is now distinctly brighter than γ. An occultation of δ Cancri by the moon is recorded as having occurred on September 3, B.C. 240.

The fine constellation Leo, the Lion, is the next “sign” of the Zodiac, and is marked by the well-known “Sickle.” According to Dupuis, it represents the first “labour of Hercules” – the killing of the Nemælian lion. Manilius called it Nemæus. It was also called Janonus sidus, Bacchi sidus, etc. The Greek name was μεχίρ, μεχείρ, or μεχός. In ancient Egypt, Leo was sacred to Osiris, and many of the Egyptian monuments are ornamented with lions’ heads. It is stated in the Horapolla that its appearance was supposed to announce the annual rising of the Nile.

Regulus (α Leonis) is the brightest and most southern of the stars in the “Sickle.” Al-Sufi says “it is situated in the heart and is of the 1st magnitude. It is that which is called al-maliki, the royal star. It is marked on the astrolabe as kalb al-asad, the Heart of the Lion” (whence the name Cor Leonis). Modern photometric measures make it about 1·3 magnitude. It has an 8½ magnitude companion at about 177″ distance (Burnham) which is moving through space with the bright star, and is therefore at probably the same distance from the earth as its brilliant primary. This companion is double (8·5, 12·5: 3″·05, Burnham). The spectroscope shows that Regulus is approaching the earth at the rate of 5½ miles a second. Its parallax is very small – about 0″·022, according to Dr. Elkin – which indicates that it is at a vast distance from the earth; and its brightness shows that it must be a sun of enormous size. Ptolemy called it βασιλίσκος, whence its Latin name Regulus, first used by Copernicus as the diminutive of rex.411

The next constellation of the Zodiac is Virgo, the Virgin. It was also called by the ancients Ceres, Isis, Erigone, Fortuna, Concorda, Astræa, and Themis. The Greek name was φαμένωθ. Ceres was the goddess of the harvest. Brown thinks that it probably represents the ancient goddess Istar, and also Ashtoreth. According to Prof. Sayce it is the same as the Accadian sign of “the errand of Istar, a name due to the belief that it was in August that the goddess Astarte descended into Hades in search of her betrothed, the sun god Tammuz, or Adonis, who had been slain by the boar’s tusk.”412 The ear of corn (Spica) is found on the ancient Egyptian monuments, and is supposed to represent the fertility caused by the annual rising of the Nile. According to Aratus, the Virgin lived on earth during the golden age under the name of Justice, but that in the bronze age she left the earth and took up her abode in the heavens.

“Justice, loathing that race of men,Winged her flight to heaven.”

The Sphinx near the Great Pyramid has the head of a virgin on the body of a lion, representing the goddess Isis (Virgo) and her husband Osiris (Leo).

Al-Sufi’s 5th star of Virgo is Flamsteed 63 Virginis. Al-Sufi says it is a double star of the 5th magnitude. In Al-Sufi’s time it formed a “naked-eye double” with 61 Virginis, but owing to large proper motion, 61 has now moved about 26 minutes of arc towards the south, and no longer forms a double with 63. This interesting fact was first pointed out by Flammarion in his work Les Étoiles (p. 373).

Libra, the Balance, is one of the “signs” of the Zodiac, but originally formed the claws of the Scorpion. It was called Juguna by Cicero, and Mochos by Ampelius. The Greek name was φαρμουθέ. Virgil suggests that it represented the justice of the emperor Augustus, honoured by the name of a constellation; but probably this refers to the birth of Augustus under the sign of Libra, as Scaliger has pointed out. According to Brown, “the daily seizing of the dying western sun by the claws of the Scorpion of darkness is reduplicated annually at the Autumnal Equinox, when the feeble waning sun of shortening days falls ever earlier into his enemy’s grasp;”413 and he says, “The Balance or Scales (Libra), which it will be observed is in itself neither diurnal nor nocturnal, is the only one of the zodiacal signs not Euphratean in origin, having been imported from Egypt and representing originally the balance of the sun at the horizon between the upper and under worlds; and secondarily the equality of the days and nights at the equinox.”414