Government in the United States, National, State and Local

Interstate Rights of Citizens.– There is a provision in the Constitution of the United States which declares that the citizens of each state shall enjoy all the privileges and immunities of the citizens of the several states. The purpose of this provision is to prevent one state from discriminating against the citizens of other states in favor of its own citizens. Whatever rights and privileges it accords to its own citizens must be accorded equally to citizens of other states who may be within its borders or who may wish to carry on business therein. The states are also forbidden by the federal Constitution to abridge the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, though the Constitution does not specify or indicate what these privileges and immunities are. They include, however, such privileges as the making and enforcing of contracts, of suing in the courts, of inheriting, holding, and conveying property, of receiving equal protection of the laws, and, in general, of enjoying every right or privilege to which the citizen is entitled under the Constitution and laws of the United States.

Rights and Duties of Aliens.– Aliens, though in a political sense members of foreign states, are, nevertheless, fully subject to the jurisdiction of the state in which they are domiciled, and owe it a temporary allegiance. They are bound to obey the laws equally with citizens, and may be punished for violations of them equally with citizens. They must also share, to a certain extent, the public burdens, and may be required to serve in the militia or police (though not in the regular army) if the common defense and domestic safety require their services.

Right of Protection.– It is now universally admitted that they are entitled to the protection of the government under which they are living so long as they are within its jurisdiction, but not when they go abroad. So far as the enjoyment of civil rights is concerned, the tendency is to treat them on a footing of equality with citizens. Both the federal and the state courts are open to them on the same terms as to citizens, and if they suffer injuries in the course of riots and other disturbances, because of their foreign nationality, especially if the public authorities fail to use due diligence to prevent or punish attacks upon them, the United States government will indemnify them or their heirs for the injuries sustained.111

Disabilities of Aliens.– Formerly aliens were subject to disabilities much more commonly than now. Under the common law, for example, they could not inherit land, but this disability has been abolished in most of the states, though some still make a distinction between resident and nonresident aliens in this respect, allowing the former class to take land by inheritance as well as by purchase but excluding the latter class. Some states do not allow them to be employed on the public works, and a few subject them to other disabilities, but they are not important or numerous.112 With regard to political privileges, however, the disabilities of aliens are still generally maintained.

Rights and Obligations of Citizens.– The chief privilege of citizenship is that of protection by the government in all personal and property rights. If the citizen goes abroad for the purpose of business or pleasure, the government will protect him from wrongful treatment so long as he obeys the law of the country to which he is, for the time being, subject, and demeans himself peaceably. If he is injured or discriminated against because of his foreign nationality, the government which fails to protect him will be required to make a suitable indemnity for the injury.

Equality of Native and Naturalized Citizens.– When it comes to protecting its citizens abroad, the United States government makes no distinction between naturalized and native-born citizens. In the case of a Russian, for example, who comes to America and is naturalized and goes back to Russia for business or pleasure, our government will insist that he be treated by the Russian authorities as if he were a native-born American citizen. At home a naturalized citizen enjoys the same privileges as a native-born except that he is not eligible to the office of President or Vice President of the United States.

Duties and Obligations of Citizens.– Rights and privileges seldom exist without corresponding duties and obligations, and so citizenship has its duties. One of these is to contribute to the bearing of the burdens of the state. This includes the payment of taxes, service in the militia or army for purposes of defense, and the discharge of such public trusts as may be imposed. It is, of course, the duty of the citizen, as it is of every one who lives in the state, to obey the laws and do what he can to secure their enforcement. Finally, if the citizen possesses political privileges, it is his duty to take an active part in securing the election of competent and honest officials to the end that the government which protects him may be efficient and well administered.

Obligations and Duties of Nations: International Law.– Nations, like individuals, are bound by rules of conduct in their relations with one another. The rules governing nations constitute what is known as international law, a subject of which we have heard much since the outbreak of the great world war in 1914. The rules of international law, unlike those of national or municipal law, are not enacted by a legislative body, for as yet, unfortunately, there is no world legislature. They consist partly of customary rules and usages, and partly of international treaties. The most important of these treaties are those negotiated to end the World War, and also the so-called conventions, sixteen in number, recommended by the Peace Conferences at the Hague in 1899 and 1907, and adopted, for the most part, by nearly all the civilized nations of the world. These conventions contain a large number of important rules prescribing the conduct to be observed by nations both in time of war and in time of peace.

Unfortunately, however, international law has one great weakness which national law does not have. National law has what the lawyers call a sanction; that is to say, a penalty is prescribed for its violation, and courts are established for punishing those who violate its rules. But in the case of international law there is as yet no machinery for bringing to the bar of justice and inflicting punishment upon a nation which violates its international duties and obligations, except as the League of Nations may succeed in performing this function. The only punishment which has often followed such an act is the reprobation of public opinion, which unhappily, as the World War has demonstrated, is not a sufficient deterrent in the case of nations which regard lightly their obligations of honor and good faith. Thinking men the world over realize how important it is to make international law more effective, to compel nations by force or otherwise to observe their international obligations, and to prevent war, the world's greatest curse.

References.– Ashley, The American Federal State, ch. xxix; also pp. 212-217. Beard, American Government and Politics, pp. 160-163. Fuller, Government by the People, ch. ii. Garner, Introduction to Political Science, ch. xi. Hart, Actual Government, chs. ii-iv. Hinsdale, The American Government, ch. liv.

Documentary and Illustrative Material.– 1. Copy of the federal citizenship law of 1907. 2. Copy of the naturalization act of 1906. 3. Copies of naturalization blanks and of naturalization regulations (these may be secured from the bureau of immigration and naturalization). 4. Copy of an application for a passport (this may be secured from the department of state). 5. Copy of a passport.

Research Questions

1. What is a citizen? Distinguish between native-born and naturalized citizens; between citizens and electors.

2. Is the citizenship of a child determined by the law of the place where it is born or by the law of the place of which the parents are citizens? Distinguish between the English and American practice in this respect, on the one hand, and the continental European practice on the other.

3. What would be the citizenship of a child born in the United States if the father were the ambassador of a foreign country, temporarily residing here? What would be the citizenship of a child born of American parents on the high seas? of a child born abroad of American parents? of a child born in the United States if the father were a foreign consul here?

4. A child born in the United States of French parents would be a citizen of the United States under our law; it would also be a citizen of France, according to French law. Which citizenship would prevail?

5. Do you think our law should admit persons of African descent to become citizens and yet deny the right to Japanese, Chinese, and natives of India?

6. May one be a citizen of two different countries at the same time?

7. What would be the status of an American woman who lost her American citizenship by marrying a foreigner, in case of the death of her husband? How could she reacquire her original citizenship?

8. How long may an American reside abroad without losing his citizenship?

9. Many Europeans, in order to escape military service in their country, have emigrated to America, acquired our citizenship and returned to their native country. Will the United States government protect such persons against impressment into the military service?

10. Suppose a citizen of New York moves to Pennsylvania and establishes a residence there. Does that act without any legal formality make him a citizen of Pennsylvania?

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island And Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia

Article I. – The style of this confederacy shall be, "The United States of America."

Art. II. – Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assembled.

Art. III. – The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever.

Art. IV. – The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of each State shall have free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions, as the inhabitants thereof respectively; provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided, also, that no imposition, duties, or restriction, shall be laid by any State on the property of the United States or either of them.

If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the governor or executive power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, and removed to the State having jurisdiction of his offense.

Full faith and credit shall be given, in each of these States, to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State.

Art. V. – For the more convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislature of each State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year.

No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor by more than seven members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees, or emolument of any kind.

Each State shall maintain its own delegates in any meeting of the States and while they act as members of the committee of the States.

In determining questions in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one vote.

Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Congress; and the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments during the time of their going to and from, and attendance on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace.

Art. VI. – No State, without the consent of the United States, in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or treaty, with any king, prince, or state; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state; nor shall the United States, in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility.

No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States, in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue.

No States shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with any stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States, in Congress assembled, with any king, prince, or state, in pursuance of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the courts of France and Spain.

No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace, by any State, except such number only as shall be deemed necessary, by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up, by any State, in time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of the United States, in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field-pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage.

No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States, in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till the United States, in Congress assembled, can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States, in Congress assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state, and the subjects thereof against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States, in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States, in Congress assembled, shall determine otherwise.

Art. VII. – When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respectively by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment.

Art. VIII. – All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States, in proportion to the value of all land within each State, granted to, or surveyed for, any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated according to such mode as the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, from time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several States, within the time agreed upon by the United States, in Congress assembled.

Art. IX. – The United States, in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth Article; of sending and receiving ambassadors; entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever; of establishing rules for deciding, in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States, shall be divided or appropriated; of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas; and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures; provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also be the last resort on appeal, in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following: Whenever the legislative or executive authority, or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another, shall present a petition to Congress, stating the matter in question, and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress, to the legislative or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining the matter in question; but if they can not agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven nor more than nine names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, be drawn out by lot; and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges, who shall hear the cause, shall agree in the determination; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing reasons which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgment and sentence of the court, to be appointed in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive; the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the parties concerned; provided, that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State where the cause shall be tried, "well and truly to hear and determine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favor, affection, or hope of reward." Provided, also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States.

All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions, as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined, as near as may be, in the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different States.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective States; fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the United States; regulating the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians not members of any of the States; provided that the legislative right of any State, within its own limits, be not infringed or violated; establishing and regulating post offices from one State to another throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same, as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office; appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers; appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States; making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations.

The United States, in Congress assembled, shall have authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated "A Committee of the States," and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other committees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direction; to appoint one of their number to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses; to borrow money or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half year to the respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emitted; to build and equip a navy; to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State, which requisition shall be binding; and thereupon the Legislature of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, and clothe, arm, and equip them in a soldier-like manner at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States, in Congress assembled; but if the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, on consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its quota, and that any other State should raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, armed, and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such State, unless the Legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number can not be safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared, and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States, in Congress assembled.