Government in the United States, National, State and Local

Recent Reforms.– In obedience to the widespread demands of the commercial interests of the country, notable improvements have recently been made in our consular service. Formerly political considerations largely determined appointments to the service, and at the beginning of each new administration a wholesale removal was made in order to find places for party workers. By acts of Congress passed in 1906 and 1909, however, the service was reorganized and attempts made to place it on a merit basis. The fee system was abolished, consuls were prohibited from practicing law or engaging in other businesses, provision was made for periodic inspection of consulates, and a system of examinations was inaugurated for determining the qualifications of appointees to the service. The adoption of these reforms has brought about a marked increase in the efficiency of the service and has tended to give to it the character of a permanent professional career such as it enjoys in Europe.

Other Bureaus of the State Department.—The Bureau of Indexes and Archives is charged with keeping the records and indexing the correspondence of the department of state. It also prepares the annual volumes of the foreign relations, containing portions of the diplomatic correspondence.

The Division of Passport Control is charged with the issue of passports to persons who desire to travel abroad. A passport is a paper signed by the secretary of state certifying that the bearer is a citizen of the United States or has declared his intention of becoming a citizen, and is entitled to the protection of the government when traveling abroad. They are granted not only to citizens but, by a recent law, to loyal residents of the insular possessions and to aliens who have declared their intention of becoming citizens and have resided in the United States for three years. A fee of one dollar is charged for each passport.

The other bureaus and divisions in the department of state are: accounts, rolls and library, appointments, information, Far Eastern affairs, Near Eastern affairs, Western European affairs, and Latin-American affairs.

The Department of the Treasury.– For the most part the department of the treasury is concerned with the management of the national finances, including (1) the administration of the revenue laws, (2) the custody of the national funds, (3) the preparation of the budget, (4) the administration of the currency and national banking laws, (5) miscellaneous functions such as those relating to the life-saving service, the public health and marine hospital service, engraving and printing, construction of public buildings, etc.

The custody of the government funds devolves upon the Treasurer, who is charged with receiving and disbursing upon proper warrant all public moneys that may be deposited in the treasury at Washington or in the subtreasuries at New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco, as well as in national banks and federal reserve banks. He is also the custodian of miscellaneous trust funds, is the agent of the government for paying interest on the public debt and for issuing and redeeming government paper currency and national bank notes, and is the custodian of the bonds deposited to secure national bank circulation.

The Register of the Treasury issues and signs all bonds of the United States, registers bond transfers and redemption of bonds, and signs transfers of public funds from the treasury to the subtreasuries or depositories.

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue supervises the collection of the federal income tax and of the taxes on the manufacture of tobacco, etc., and supervises the enforcement of the prohibition law.

The Director of the Budget, provided for by the new budget act of 1921, prepares for the President the annual budget and all other estimates of revenues and expenditures, and with that end in view, has power to assemble, correlate, revise, reduce, or increase the estimates of the several departments or establishments. The President is, however, directly responsible for the budget, and transmits it to Congress. By the same act, the office of Comptroller of the Treasury was abolished, and the auditing and accounting functions were removed from the Treasury Department to an independent General Accounting Office, with the Comptroller-General of the United States at its head.

The principal officers who have to do with currency administration are the director of the mint and the comptroller of the currency. The Director of the Mint has general supervision of the administration of the coinage laws and the management of the coinage and assay offices.89 The Comptroller of the Currency exercises supervision over the national banks. It is his duty to see that national banks are properly organized, that the capital stock is fully subscribed and paid in, that the necessary amount of United States bonds have been duly deposited with the government to secure the circulation of their notes, and that all national banks are properly examined from time to time. He also has important duties in connection with the management of the federal reserve banks. He has charge of the issue of national bank notes and (under the supervision the Federal Reserve Board) of Federal reserve notes.

Among the bureaus of the treasury department which have no direct relation to the public finances the most important is the Public Health Service, which is under the direction of a surgeon general who is charged with the supervision of the national quarantine stations and of hospitals for the relief of sick and disabled seamen, and discharged soldiers, sailors, and marines. He calls conferences of all state health boards. He is authorized to adopt regulations to prevent the introduction and spread of contagious diseases, and it is his duty to supervise the medical examination of immigrants seeking admission to the United States.

The Coast Guard, as organized in 1915, is charged with the duties of the former life-saving service and the revenue cutter service. It renders assistance to persons and vessels in distress, patrols the coast for the purpose of preventing violations of the customs laws, and enforces the laws relating to quarantine, navigation, protection of the game, fishery, and seal industries, etc. It constitutes a part of the military forces and is under the treasury department in time of peace and under the navy department in time of war.

The Supervising Architect is charged with the selection and purchase of sites for government buildings, such as federal courthouses, post-office buildings, customhouses, mints, etc.; with the preparation of plans and specifications and the awarding of contracts for such buildings.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing is charged with the duty of engraving and printing all government securities, including United States notes, bonds, certificates, national bank notes, federal reserve notes, internal revenue, customs, and postage stamps, treasury drafts, etc.

The Secret Service Division is a body of detective agents employed to detect frauds and crimes against the government, such as counterfeiting or espionage. Some of the force are also employed in guarding the President.

The Bureau of War Risk Insurance (created in 1914) is charged with carrying out the laws relating to government insurance of American ships, soldiers, and sailors.

The Federal Reserve Board and the Federal Farm Loan Board (see p. 234) are also under the Treasury Department.

The War Department.– The secretary of war has charge of all matters relating to national defense and seacoast fortifications, river and harbor improvements, the prevention of obstructions to navigation, and the establishment of harbor lines; and all plans and locations, of bridges authorized by Congress to be constructed over navigable rivers require his approval.

The army is under the direction of the General Staff described on p. 263. Within the war department there are also a number of departments and bureaus, each under the direction of an army officer.

The Adjutant General has charge of the records and correspondence of the army and militia; of the recruiting service, including enlistments, appointments, promotions, resignations, etc. He communicates to subordinate officers the orders of the President and the secretary of war, and preserves reports of military movements and operations.

The Inspector General, with his assistants, visits and inspects military posts, depots, fortifications, armories and arsenals, and public works in charge of army officers, and makes reports on the conduct, efficiency, and discipline of officers and men, including their arms and equipment.

The Quartermaster General has supervision over the quartermaster corps which is the main supply service of the army (except for technical articles), and furnishes food, clothing, equipment, animals, and forage. It also has charge of building construction and transportation for the army.

The Chief of Finance has control over the finances of the army.

The Surgeon General has supervision over the medical service of the army; looks after the sick and wounded; provides medical and hospital supplies, and inquires into the sanitary conditions of the army. In addition to field hospitals permanent depots and hospitals are maintained at various points.

The Judge-Advocate General is the chief law officer of the army; he reviews records of the proceedings of courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions, and acts as legal adviser to the war department.

The Chief Signal Officer is charged with the supervision of military signal duties, the construction, repair, and operation of military telegraph lines and cables.

The Chief of the Air Service has supervision over aircraft production and the aviation service.

The Chief of Ordnance supervises the purchase, manufacture, and distribution of artillery, small arms, and ammunition for the army and the militia. For the manufacture of arms and ammunition there are arsenals at Springfield, Mass., Rock Island, Ill., Watervliet, N. Y., and elsewhere.

The Chief of Engineers is at the head of the engineering corps, a branch of the army which is charged with the construction of public works such as military roads, bridges, fortifications, river and harbor improvements, geographical explorations, and surveys. The construction of the Panama Canal is the most notable of the recent undertakings of the war department in this field.

The Chief of the Chemical Warfare Service has supervision over the production of chemical warfare materials as well as defensive appliances for protection against such warfare. He also supervises the training of the army in the use of both.

The Militia Bureau, created in 1916, has charge of all matters relating to the National Guard.

In addition to the purely military functions and construction of public works, the war department has certain duties in connection with the government of the insular possessions and the Panama Canal Zone. So far as these duties relate to Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands they are under the direction of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, at the head of which is an army officer with the title of chief of the bureau. This bureau also has charge of the collection of the revenues of Haiti and the Dominican Republic in accordance with treaties which practically establish an American receivership over those republics.

Finally, the war department has charge of the United States Military Academy at West Point, the various post-graduate schools of instruction for army officers located at different army posts, the national military parks at Chickamauga, Gettysburg, Shiloh, and Vicksburg, and the national cemeteries in various parts of the country. The military academy at West Point was founded in 1802. A certain number of cadets (the number – for a long time one only – has varied at different periods) are appointed from each congressional district and territory, upon the nomination of the representative in Congress from the district; also certain numbers from each state at large, from the District of Columbia, and from the United States at large. All candidates are required to pass a physical and intellectual examination; the course of instruction lasts four years; and each cadet receives pay sufficient for his maintenance. Graduates receive appointments as second lieutenants in the army, those standing highest usually being appointed to the engineering corps if they prefer assignment to that branch of the service. The secretary of war exercises general supervision over the academy, and it is inspected at regular intervals by a board of visitors of whom seven are appointed by the President, two by the Vice President, and three by the speaker of the house of representatives.

The Department of the Navy was created in 1798. At its head is a secretary, who, like the head of the war department, is usually taken from civil life. Like the war department, the navy department is organized into the Office of Naval Operations and a number of bureaus.

The Bureau of Navigation has charge of the recruiting service, the training of officers and men, the naval academy; schools for the technical education of enlisted men, apprentice schools, the naval home at Philadelphia, transportation of enlisted men, records of squadrons, ships, officers and men; the preparation of the naval register, preparation of drill regulations, signal codes, and cipher codes. Under this bureau falls the publication of the Nautical Almanac, charts and sailing directions, the naval observatory, and the hydrographic office.

The Bureau of Yards and Docks has general control of the navy yards and docks belonging to the government, including their construction and repair, and also of the construction of battleships whenever such construction is authorized by Congress. The navy yards are located at Washington, Brooklyn, Mare Island (California), Philadelphia (League Island), Norfolk, Pensacola, Cavite (in the Philippines), and various other places.

The Bureau of Ordnance has charge of the supply of armament and ammunition for the ships. It supervises the manufacture of guns and torpedoes, installs armament on the vessels, and has charge of the naval proving ground and magazines, the naval gun factory, and the torpedo station.

The Bureau of Construction and Repair has charge of the planning, building, and repairing of vessels, and of their equipment, excepting their armament and engines.

Other Bureaus of the Navy Department, whose general duties are indicated sufficiently by their titles, are: the bureau of engineering, the bureau of medicine and surgery, and the bureau of supplies and accounts.

The Judge-Advocate General is the law officer of the navy department and performs duties similar to those of the judge-advocate general of the war department.

The Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps issues orders for the movement of troops under the direction of the secretary of the navy.

The department of the navy also has general charge of the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis. The academy was founded in 1846, by George Bancroft, then secretary of the navy. A specified number of midshipmen are allowed for each member of Congress and each territorial delegate, and certain numbers from the District of Columbia, from Porto Rico, and from the United States at large.90 Appointments are made by the President after a physical and intellectual examination by a board, and an allowance is made for maintaining each midshipman while in residence at the academy. The course lasts four years and includes instruction in gunnery, naval construction, steam engineering, navigation, mathematics, international law, modern languages, etc. After the completion of the course, midshipmen spend two years at sea, after which they receive subordinate appointments in the navy or marine corps.

The Department of Justice.– The office of attorney-general was created in 1789, and from the first the attorney-general was a member of the cabinet; but for a long time the duties of the office were not extensive, and it was not until 1870 that the office was made an executive department with its present title and organization.

The Attorney-General is the chief law officer of the national government and is the legal adviser of the President and the heads of departments. He represents the United States before the Supreme Court in cases in which it is a party, exercises a sort of administrative supervision over the United States district attorneys and marshals and over the federal penitentiaries, examines applications for pardons, and advises the President in the exercise of his pardoning power. The opinions which he renders on constitutional and legal questions referred to him are published by the government in a series of volumes, and altogether they constitute an important body of constitutional and administrative law. Under the direction of the President he institutes proceedings and prosecutes cases against corporations and persons for violations of the laws of the United States, or directs the district attorneys to do so.

The Post Office Department.– At the head of the post office department is the postmaster-general. He establishes and discontinues post offices, appoints all postmasters whose compensation does not exceed $1,000 a year, issues postal regulations, makes postal treaties with foreign governments, with the approval of the President, awards mail contracts, and has general supervision of the domestic and foreign postal service. There is an assistant attorney-general for the post office department, who advises the postmaster-general on questions of law, has charge of prosecutions arising under the postal laws, hears cases relating to the misuse of the mails, and drafts postal contracts. There are also four assistant postmasters-general, each of whom has supervision over a group of services within the department. The postal service has already been described in chapter xiv.

The Department of the Interior.– The interior department, established in 1849, is one of the largest and most important of the ten executive departments. Next to the post office department, the services which it performs reach more people than those performed by any other department. Its staff of employees at Washington ranks second in numbers only to that of the treasury department. It has charge of the public lands, Indian affairs, pensions, patents, the geological survey, and, to some extent, the government of the territories.

The Public Lands.– Perhaps the most important bureau in the interior department is the General Land Office, which has charge of the public lands, and the care and control of the forest reserves. Before the public lands are sold or otherwise disposed of they must be surveyed. For this purpose there are seventeen surveying districts, in each of which there is a surveyor general.

Disposal of the Public Lands.– The public lands have been disposed of with a somewhat lavish hand. In the early days liberal grants were made to the soldiers of the Revolutionary War. Immense quantities have also been sold at low rates – much of it at $1.25 per acre – in order to encourage settlers to establish homes thereon. Considerable quantities have also been granted to the states for educational purposes and the construction of internal improvements. Beginning with Ohio in 1802, each new state admitted to the Union was given one section in each township for the support of elementary schools, and those admitted after 1850 were given two sections in each township. Under the Morrill act of 1862, 10,000,000 acres were given to the states for the establishment of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Some of the more recently admitted states were given from one to four townships each for the establishment of universities.91

Before the Civil War, large quantities were given to the states for the construction of canals and railroads. Large tracts of the public lands have also been granted to private corporations as subsidies for the building of transcontinental railways. Finally, by an act of 1902, the proceeds from the sale of all public lands in seventeen Western states are set aside for constructing irrigation works in those states.

By the preëmption act of 1841, it was provided that 160 acres of land should be given to any family living thereon for a period of six months and paying $200 therefor. This act was repealed in 1891, but millions of acres were disposed of during the fifty years it was in force.

By the homestead act of 1863, still in force, any head of a family may acquire 160 acres by living on it for three years (it was five years before 1912), cultivating a certain part of it, and paying a small fee.

The Public Lands now Remaining aggregate about 665,000,000 acres, including those in Alaska. Of these lands a large part have been set aside for Indian reservations, national parks, military reservations, and national forests,92 and is therefore not open to purchase or entry under the homestead act. Arid lands are sold in tracts not exceeding 640 acres at $1.25 per acre; mineral lands are sold at from $2.50 to $5 per acre; timber and stone lands at a minimum of $2.50 per acre; town site lands at a minimum of $10 per acre; and agricultural lands at $1.25 per acre.

Land Offices are established in all the states where there is any considerable amount of public land left. At each office there is a register and a receiver who examines applications for entries and issues certificates upon which patents or deeds are finally granted.

Indian Affairs.– Another important branch of the government service falling within the department of the interior is the management of Indian affairs. For a long time each tribe was treated to some extent as though it were an independent community, and was dealt with somewhat as foreign nations are dealt with. In 1871, however, it was enacted that henceforth no Indian tribe should be acknowledged or treated as an independent nation or power with which the United States may contract by treaty – an act which marks the beginning of the end of Indian tribal authority.

The policy of extending the jurisdiction of the government over the Indians was begun by an act of 1885 which gave the United States courts jurisdiction over seven leading crimes when committed by Indians on their reservations. Previous to that time, crimes committed by Indians against Indians within a reservation were left to be dealt with by the tribal authorities themselves.

The Allotment Act.– By the Dawes act of 1887 the new Indian policy begun in 1871 was still further extended. This act provided for the allotment of Indian lands to individual members of the tribe, and declared that Indians who accepted such allotments or who should leave their tribe and adopt the habits of civilized life, should be considered as citizens of the United States and entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens. Previous to this time the lands occupied by the Indians were owned by the tribe as a whole and not by the individuals who occupied them. Under this act, individual allotments aggregating more than 30,000,000 acres have been made to 180,000 Indians. There remain about 120,000 Indians, to whom allotments are still to be made. The result of this policy will ultimately be to extinguish the Indian tribes and incorporate them into the American body politic.

Indian Agents.– The control of the national government over the Indian reservations is exercised largely through Indian agents appointed by the President. They are charged with the regulation of trade with the Indians, and have control of the distribution of rations. At each agency one or more schools are maintained, and in addition to the reservation schools there are schools for the higher education of Indians in various parts of the country, the most important being at Lawrence, Kansas, and Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The aggregate annual expenditures on account of the service are now about $15,000,000, more than half of which consists of payments due the Indians under treaty stipulations or of interest on trust funds held by the government for them. The total amount of these trust funds is about $50,000,000.93