The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

12 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]

13 (return)

[ Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]

14 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.]

15 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.]

16 (return)

[ 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.]

17 (return)

[ 'Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934.]

18 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.]

19 (return)

[ See remarks to this effect in Lessing's 'Lacooon,' translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]

20 (return)

[ Mr. Partridge in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.]

21 (return)

[ 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]

22 (return)

[ 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.]

101 (return)

[ Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework." He classes as Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]

102 (return)

[ Muller, 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,' vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp. 511-557.]

103 (return)

[ A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the illustrious Harvey; for both assert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these assertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140.]

104 (return)

[ See for my authorities, and for various analogous facts, 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol. ii. p. 304.]

105 (return)

[ 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332. Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit. 1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not."]

106 (return)

[ Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many analogous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]

107 (return)

[ 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p. 17.]

108 (return)

[ 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case: – "The following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or more. The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the button from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.

"Many years after his death, his son married a lady who had never heard of the family incident. She, however, observed precisely the same peculiarity in her husband; but his nose, from not being particularly prominent, has never as yet suffered from the blows. The trick does not occur when he is half-asleep, as, for example, when dozing in his arm-chair, but the moment he is fast asleep it is apt to begin. It is, as with his father, intermittent; sometimes ceasing for many nights, and sometimes almost incessant during a part of every night. It is performed, as it was by his father, with his right hand.

"One of his children, a girl, has inherited the same trick. She performs it, likewise, with the right hand, but in a slightly modified form; for, after raising the arm, she does not allow the wrist to drop upon the bridge of the nose, but the palm of the half-closed hand falls over and down the nose, striking it rather rapidly. It is also very intermittent with this child, not occurring for periods of some months, but sometimes occurring almost incessantly."]

109 (return)

[ Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Physiology,' 5th edit. p. 305) that reflex actions proper to the spinal cord are NATURAL; but, by the help of the brain, that is through habit, an infinity of ARTIFICIAL reflex actions may be acquired. Virchow admits ('Sammlung wissenschaft. Vortrage,' &c., "Ueber das Ruckeninark," 1871, ss. 24, 31) that some reflex actions can hardly be distinguished from instincts; and, of the latter, it may be added, some cannot be distinguished from inherited habits.]

110 (return)

[ Dr. Maudsley, 'Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 8.]

111 (return)

[ See the very interesting discussion on the whole subject by Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, p. 353-356.]

112 (return)

[ 'Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 85.]

113 (return)

[ Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. tr. vol. ii. p. 1311) on starting being always accompanied by the closure of the eyelids.]

114 (return)

[ Dr. Maudsley remarks ('Body and Mind,' p. 10) that "reflex movements which commonly effect a useful end may, under the changed circumstances of disease, do great mischief, becoming even the occasion of violent suffering and of a most painful death."]

115 (return)

[ See Mr. F. H. Salvin's account of a tame jackal in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869.]

116 (return)

[ "Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 160. I find that the fact of cats protruding their feet when pleased is also noticed (p. 151) in this work.]

117 (return)

[ Carpenter, 'Principles of Comparative Physiology,' 1854, p. 690, and Muller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 936.]

118 (return)

[ Mowbray on 'Poultry,' 6th edit. 1830, p. 54.]

119 (return)

[ See the account given by this excellent observer in 'Wild Sports of the Highlands,' 1846, p. 142.]

120 (return)

[ 'Philosophical Translations,' 1823, p. 182.]

201 (return)

[ 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 55.]

202 (return)

[ Mr. Tylor gives an account of the Cistercian gesture-language in his 'Early History of Mankind' (2nd edit. 1870, p. 40), and makes some remarks on the principle of opposition in gestures.]

203 (return)

[ See on this subject Dr. W. R. Scott's interesting work, 'The Deaf and Dumb,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 12. He says, "This contracting of natural gestures into much shorter gestures than the natural expression requires, is very common amongst the deaf and dumb. This contracted gesture is frequently so shortened as nearly to lose all semblance of the natural one, but to the deaf and dumb who use it, it still has the force of the original expression."]

301 (return)

[ See the interesting cases collected by M. G. Pouchet in the 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' January 1, 1872, p. 79. An instance was also brought some years ago before the British Association at Belfast.]

302 (return)

[ Muller remarks ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 934) that when the feelings are very intense, "all the spinal nerves become affected to the extent of imperfect paralysis, or the excitement of trembling of the whole body."]

303 (return)

[ 'Lecons sur les Prop. des Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp. 457-466.]

304 (return)

[ Mr. Bartlett, "Notes on the Birth of a Hippopotamus," Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1871, p. 255.]

305 (return)

[ See, on this subject, Claude Bernard, 'Tissus Vivants,' 1866, pp. 316, 337, 358. Virchow expresses himself to almost exactly the same effect in his essay "Ueber das Ruckenmark" (Sammlung wissenschaft. Vortrage, 1871, s. 28).]

306 (return)

[ Muller ('Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 932) in speaking of the nerves, says, "any sudden change of condition of whatever kind sets the nervous principle into action." See Virchow and Bernard on the same subject in passages in the two works referred to in my last foot-note.]

307 (return)

[ H. Spencer, 'Essays, Scientific, Political,' &c., Second Series, 1863, pp. 109, 111.]

308 (return)

[ Sir H. Holland, in speaking ('Medical Notes and Reflexions,' 1839, p. 328) of that curious state of body called the fidgets, remarks that it seems due to "an accumulation of some cause of irritation which requires muscular action for its relief."]

309 (return)

[ I am much indebted to Mr. A. H. Garrod for having informed me of M. Lorain's work on the pulse, in which a sphygmogram of a woman in a rage is given; and this shows much difference in the rate and other characters from that of the same woman in her ordinary state.]

310 (return)

[ How powerfully intense joy excites the brain, and how the brain reacts on the body, is well shown in the rare cases of Psychical Intoxication. Dr. J. Crichton Browne ('Medical Mirror,' 1865) records the case of a young man of strongly nervous temperament, who, on hearing by a telegram that a fortune had been bequeathed him, first became pale, then exhilarated, and soon in the highest spirits, but flushed and very restless. He then took a walk with a friend for the sake of tranquillising himself, but returned staggering in his gait, uproariously laughing, yet irritable in temper, incessantly talking, and singing loudly in the public streets. It was positively ascertained that he had not touched any spirituous liquor, though every one thought that he was intoxicated. Vomiting after a time came on, and the half-digested contents of his stomach were examined, but no odour of alcohol could be detected. He then slept heavily, and on awaking was well, except that he suffered from headache, nausea, and prostration of strength.]

311 (return)

[ Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 148.]

312 (return)

[ Mrs. Oliphant, in her novel of 'Miss Majoribanks,' p. 362. All this reacts on the brain, and prostration soon follows with collapsed muscles and dulled eyes. As associated habit no longer prompts the sufferer to action, he is urged by his friends to voluntary exertion, and not to give way to silent, motionless grief. Exertion stimulates the heart, and this reacts on the brain, and aids the mind to bear its heavy load.]

401 (return)

[ See the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27. On the cooing of pigeons, vol. i. pp. 154, 155.]

402 (return)

[ 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' 1858. 'The Origin and Function of Music,' p. 359.]

403 (return)

[ 'The Descent of Man,' 1870, vol. ii. p. 332. The words quoted are from Professor Owen. It has lately been shown that some quadrupeds much lower in the scale than monkeys, namely Rodents, are able to produce correct musical tones: see the account of a singing Hesperomys, by the Rev. S. Lockwood, in the 'American Naturalist,' vol. v. December, 1871, p. 761.]

404 (return)

[ Mr. Tylor ('Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 166), in his discussion on this subject, alludes to the whining of the dog.]

405 (return)

[ 'Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 46.]

406 (return)

[ Quoted by Gratiolet, 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 115.]

407 (return)

[ 'Theorie Physiologique de la Musique,' Paris, 1868, P. 146. Helmholtz has also fully discussed in this profound work the relation of the form of the cavity of the mouth to the production of vowel-sounds.]

408 (return)

[ I have given some details on this subject in my 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. pp. 352, 384.]

409 (return)

[ As quoted in Huxley's 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 52.]

410 (return)

[ Illust. Thierleben, 1864, B. i. s. 130.]

411 (return)

[ The Hon. J. Caton, Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sciences, May, 1868, pp. 36, 40. For the Capra, AEgagrus, 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 37.]

412 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' July 20, 1867, p. 659.]

413 (return)

[ Phaeton rubricauda: 'Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 180.]

414 (return)

[ On the Strix flammea, Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' 1864, vol. ii. p. 407. I have observed other cases in the Zoological Gardens.]

415 (return)

[ Melopsittacus undulatus. See an account of its habits by Gould, 'Handbook of Birds of Australia,' 1865, vol. ii. p. 82.]

416 (return)

[ See, for instance, the account which I have given ('Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 32) of an Anolis and Draco.]

417 (return)

[ These muscles are described in his well-known works. I am greatly indebted to this distinguished observer for having given me in a letter information on this same subject.]

418 (return)

[ 'Lehrbuch der Histologie des Menschen,' 1857, s. 82. I owe to Prof. W. Turner's kindness an extract from this work.]

419 (return)

[ 'Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,' 1853, vol. i. p. 262.]

420 (return)

[ 'Lehrbuch der Histologie,' 1857, s. 82.]

421 (return)

[ 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' p. 403.]

422 (return)

[ See the account of the habits of this animal by Dr. Cooper, as quoted in 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 512.]

423 (return)

[ Dr. Gunther, 'Reptiles of British India,' p. 262.]

424 (return)

[ Mr. J. Mansel Weale, 'Nature,' April 27, 1871, p. 508.]

425 (return)

[ 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"' 1845, p. 96. I have compared the rattling thus produced with that of the Rattle-snake.]

426 (return)

[ See the account by Dr. Anderson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 196.]

427 (return)

[ The 'American Naturalist,' Jan. 1872, p. 32. I regret that I cannot follow Prof. Shaler in believing that the rattle has been developed, by the aid of natural selection, for the sake of producing sounds which deceive and attract birds, so that they may serve as prey to the snake. I do not, however, wish to doubt that the sounds may occasionally subserve this end. But the conclusion at which I have arrived, viz. that the rattling serves as a warning to would-be devourers, appears to me much more probable, as it connects together various classes of facts. If this snake had acquired its rattle and the habit of rattling, for the sake of attracting prey, it does not seem probable that it would have invariably used its instrument when angered or disturbed. Prof. Shaler takes nearly the same view as I do of the manner of development of the rattle; and I have always held this opinion since observing the Trigonocephalus in South America.]

428 (return)

[ From the accounts lately collected, and given in the 'Journal of the Linnean Society,' by Airs. Barber, on the habits of the snakes of South Africa; and from the accounts published by several writers, for instance by Lawson, of the rattle-snake in North America, – it does not seem improbable that the terrific appearance of snakes and the sounds produced by them, may likewise serve in procuring prey, by paralysing, or as it is sometimes called fascinating, the smaller animals.]

429 (return)

[ See the account by Dr. R. Brown, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 39. He says that as soon as a pig sees a snake it rushes upon it; and a snake makes off immediately on the appearance of a pig.]

430 (return)

[ Dr. Gunther remarks ('Reptiles of British India,' p. 340) on the destruction of cobras by the ichneumon or herpestes, and whilst the cobras are young by the jungle-fowl. It is well known that the peacock also eagerly kills snakes.]

431 (return)

[ Prof. Cope enumerates a number of kinds in his 'Method of Creation of Organic Types,' read before the American Phil. Soc., December 15th, 1871, p. 20. Prof. Cope takes the same view as I do of the use of the gestures and sounds made by snakes. I briefly alluded to this subject in the last edition of my 'Origin of Species.' Since the passages in the text above have been printed, I have been pleased to find that Mr. Henderson ('The American Naturalist,' May, 1872, p. 260) also takes a similar view of the use of the rattle, namely "in preventing an attack from being made."]

432 (return)

[ Mr. des Voeux, in Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 3.]

433 (return)

[ 'The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada,' 1866, p. 53. p. 53.{sic}]

434 (return)

[ 'The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,' 1867, p. 443.]

501 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 190.]

502 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, pp. 187, 218.]

503 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 140.]

504 (return)

[ Many particulars are given by Gueldenstadt in his account of the jackal in Nov. Comm. Acad. Sc. Imp. Petrop. 1775, tom. xx. p. 449. See also another excellent account of the manners of this animal and of its play, in 'Land and Water,' October, 1869. Lieut. Annesley, R. A., has also communicated to me some particulars with respect to the jackal. I have made many inquiries about wolves and jackals in the Zoological Gardens, and have observed them for myself.]

505 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' November 6, 1869.]

506 (return)

[ Azara, 'Quadrupedes du Paraquay,' 1801, tom. 1. p. 136.]

507 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' 1867, p. 657. See also Azara on the Puma, in the work above quoted.]

508 (return)

[ Sir C. Bell, 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 123. See also p. 126, on horses not breathing through their mouths, with reference to their distended nostrils.]

509 (return)

[ 'Land and Water,' 1869, p. 152.]

510 (return)

[ 'Natural History of Mammalia,' 1841, vol. 1. pp. 383, 410.]

511 (return)

[ Rengger ('Sagetheire von Paraquay', 1830, s. 46) kept these monkeys in confinement for seven years in their native country of Paraguay.]

512 (return)

[ Rengger, ibid. s. 46. Humboldt, 'Personal Narrative, Eng. translat. vol. iv. p. 527.]

513 (return)

[ Nat. Hist. of Mammalia, 1841, p. 351.]

514 (return)

[ Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 84. On baboons striking the ground, s. 61.]

515 (return)

[ Brehm remarks ('Thierleben,' s. 68) that the eyebrows of the Inuus ecaudatus are frequently moved up and down when the animal is angered.]

516 (return)

[ G. Bennett, 'Wanderings in New South Wales,' &c. vol. ii. 1834, p. 153. FIG. 18. – Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky. Drawn from life by Mr. Wood.]

517 (return)

[ W. L. Martin, Nat. Hist. of Mamm. Animals, 1841, p. 405.]

518 (return)

[ Prof. Owen on the Orang, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1830, p. 28. On the Chimpanzee, see Prof. Macalister, in Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist. vol. vii. 1871, p. 342, who states that the corrugator supercilii is inseparable from the orbicularis palpebrarum.]

519 (return)

[ Boston Journal of Nat. Hist. 1845 – 47, vol. v. p. 423. On the Chimpanzee, ibid. 1843-44, vol. iv. p. 365.]

520 (return)

[ See on this subject, 'Descent of Man,' vol. i. p. 20.]

521 (return)

[ 'Descent of Man,' vol, i. p, 43.]

522 (return)

[ 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. 1844, pp. 138, 121.]

601 (return)

[ The best photographs in my collection are by Mr. Rejlander, of Victoria Street, London, and by Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg. Figs. 1, 3, 4, and 6 are by the former; and figs. 2 and 5, by the latter gentleman. Fig. 6 is given to show moderate crying in an older child.]

602 (return)

[ Henle ('Handbuch d. Syst. Anat. 1858, B. i. s. 139) agrees with Duchenne that this is the effect of the contraction of the pyramidalis nasi.]

603 (return)

[ These consist of the levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, the levator labii proprius, the malaris, and the zygomaticus minor, or little zygomatic. This latter muscle runs parallel to and above the great zygomatic, and is attached to the outer part of the upper lip. It is represented in fig. 2 (I. p. 24), but not in figs. 1 and 3. Dr. Duchenne first showed ('Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, 1862, p. 39) the importance of the contraction of this muscle in the shape assumed by the features in crying. Henle considers the above-named muscles (excepting the malaris) as subdivisions of the quadratus labii superioris.]

604 (return)

[ Although Dr. Duchenne has so carefully studied the contraction of the different muscles during the act of crying, and the furrows on the face thus produced, there seems to be something incomplete in his account; but what this is I cannot say. He has given a figure (Album, fig. 48) in which one half of the face is made, by galvanizing the proper muscles, to smile; whilst the other half is similarly made to begin crying. Almost all those (viz. nineteen out of twenty-one persons) to whom I showed the smiling half of the face instantly recognized the expression; but, with respect to the other half, only six persons out of twenty-one recognized it, – that is, if we accept such terms as "grief," "misery," "annoyance," as correct; – whereas, fifteen persons were ludicrously mistaken; some of them saying the face expressed "fun," "satisfaction," "cunning," "disgust," &c. We may infer from this that there is something wrong in the expression. Some of the fifteen persons may, however, have been partly misled by not expecting to see an old man crying, and by tears not being secreted. With respect to another figure by Dr. Duchenne (fig. 49), in which the muscles of half the face are galvanized in order to represent a man beginning to cry, with the eyebrow on the same side rendered oblique, which is characteristic of misery, the expression was recognized by a greater proportional number of persons. Out of twenty-three persons, fourteen answered correctly, "sorrow," "distress," "grief," "just going to cry," "endurance of pain," &c. On the other hand, nine persons either could form no opinion or were entirely wrong, answering, "cunning leer," "jocund," "looking at an intense light," "looking at a distant object," &c.]

605 (return)

[ Mrs. Gaskell, 'Mary Barton,' new edit. p. 84.]

606 (return)

[ 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 102. Duchenne, Mecanisme de la Phys. Humaine, Album, p. 34.]

607 (return)

[ Dr. Duchenne makes this remark, ibid. p. 39.]

608 (return)

[ 'The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 355.]

609 (return)

[ See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 61.]

610 (return)

[ 'New Zealand and its Inhabitants,' 1855, p. 175.]

611 (return)

[ 'De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 126.]

612 (return)

[ 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also 'The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175.]