Spanish America, Vol. II (of 2)

On the death of Atahualpa, his son was invested with the royal insignia by Pizarro, who hoped to retain the Indians in subjection, by the command he held over their sovereign.

Quizquiz, a Peruvian general, had made head in a province named Xauxa, so that it was necessary for Pizarro to march against him; this was accordingly done; and Hernando de Soto, moving forward with a strong advanced guard, Quizquiz retreated, being unable to withstand Soto; but that leader followed him, and obliged the Peruvians to retreat on Quito.

So great was the fame of Pizarro's conquests at this time, that numerous bodies of troop joined him from Tierra Firma, Guatimala, &c., and he was now enabled to take the field with 500 men, besides leaving sufficient garrisons in the conquered towns. He accordingly hastened his march on Cuzco, the capital, in the route to which he met Paulu Inca, a brother of Atahualpa, who had been solemnly invested with the regal fillet by the Peruvians. He told the Spanish general that he had a large army at Cuzco, who were ready to submit to his orders. On the arrival of the Spaniards they were however attacked very vigorously by the Peruvians, and a battle ensued which lasted till night.

The next day the general entered the metropolis without opposition, where he found an immense booty; his thoughts were now turned on colonizing the country, and placing such a force in Cuzco as should insure a permanent settlement there; this he effected with much difficulty, as many of his followers were determined to return to Spain in order to enjoy in their native country the fruits of their hard-earned wealth.

San Miguel the first town built by the Spaniards being poorly garrisoned, Pizarro now sent Benalcazar with ten horsemen to reinforce the place. This officer receiving complaints from the neighbouring Indians of the exactions and vindictive proceedings of the Peruvians at Quito, took with him a number of soldiers who had then arrived from Panama and Nicaragua to subdue that country; his success was complete. Quito and Cuzco the two capitals being now reduced Fernando Pizarro was dispatched by his brother to Spain, to lay an account of the proceedings of the Spanish Army before the king, carrying with him an immensely valuable present in gold and silver. He was favourably received, Pizarro was confirmed in his government and a further addition of seventy leagues to the south made to his territories; on Almagro was conferred the government of the countries 200 leagues south of the limits prescribed to Pizarro, who was created Marquess of Atavillos.

While the negotiations were going on, Alvarado the governor of Guatimala had landed on the Peruvian coast with a large force, and gone into the interior with the intention of dispossessing Almagro of his command, and Pizarro of the possession of Cuzco, but marching against the army of the former who was employed in reducing the provinces between Quito and Peru, his men refused to fight their brethren, and the leaders after much parleying became reconciled; Alvarado promising to deliver over his troops to the two generals for a stipulated sum, which was honourably paid him by Pizarro. These troubles being at an end, Pizarro founded the city of Lima, on the 18th of January, 1533, and transferred the colonists he had placed in Xauxa thither.

While he was thus employed Almagro having heard of the king's grant, determined to take possession of Cuzco, which he considered within his limit; in this attempt he was defeated by the municipal body of that place, and Pizarro arriving in good time, put a stop to his further proceedings. It was then agreed that Almagro should have 500 men, and proceed southward, conquering such countries as he deemed expedient, in which he was to be assisted by every means in Pizarro's power; this was the commencement of the conquest of Chili.

After the departure of Almagro on this scheme, Pizarro resumed his task of giving a regular form to his government, by making the necessary distributions of land to the colonists who were continually arriving, by instituting courts of justice, and by founding towns, &c. Manco Capac the reigning Inca revolted at this period, and entered, with Philipillo and others, into a conspiracy to exterminate the armies of Pizarro and Almagro; he obtained possession of Cuzco, which was not taken from him until after eight days hard fighting, and with the loss of Juan Pizarro, who was killed by a stone.

The brothers of Pizarro, who was at Lima, had much difficulty to maintain possession of the capital; all communication between them and the governor being cut off, and the place was vigorously besieged by Manco Capac and his brothers Paullu and Villaoma, for eight months, during which time the Spaniards lost many men. Almagro hearing of these disasters, thought this a convenient time to assert his old pretensions to the government of Cuzco, and accordingly marched from the frontiers of Chili to that place in 1537. He was met by the Inca, who under pretence of making overtures to him, drew him into a snare, from which he narrowly escaped, with the loss of several of his men.

The brothers of Pizarro finding they had now a new enemy to withstand, prepared Cuzco to undergo a formidable siege; but having lost six hundred men during the attacks of the Peruvians, they were surprised by the troops of Almagro who forced them to submit, and declared himself governor of the place, imprisoning Fernando and Gonzalo Pizarro, and quartering Philipillo, who was taken prisoner in the ambush of the Inca.

Manco Capac finding that Almagro was too strong to be easily ejected, retired to the mountains, but his brother Paullu remaining at Cuzco, was raised to the throne of Peru by Almagro. It was some time before all these untoward tidings reached the ears of the new Marquess Pizarro; he first heard of the attack of the city by the Inca, and imagining it to be a trivial affair, detached small parties at different periods to the assistance of his brothers; none of these reached their destination, being always cut off by the Peruvians in the narrow and difficult passes of the mountains. Some few of these people escaping from the massacre, which always took place on their being surprised, returned to Lima, and related the fate of their companions to the Marquess, who recalling all his outposts, nominated Alvarado to the command of the army, and sent him towards Cuzco, with 500 men; but being closely invested at Lima by the Peruvians, under Titu Yupanqui, a brother of Manco Capac, he sent off all his vessels to Panama, fearful that the troops might otherwise desert, and by these ships he implored assistance from the governors of New Spain and the West Indies.

Alvarado, after a harassing march, and fighting severe battles with the Peruvians, halted near the bridge of Abancay on the Apurimac; at which place he was met by a messenger from Almagro, insisting on his acknowledging the title he bore to the government of Cuzco. An unsatisfactory reply being sent, Almagro advanced to attack the army under Alvarado, and by dint of bribery, corrupting the greater part of it, obtained a bloodless victory on the 12th of July, 1537.

Pizarro hearing nothing of his general, and receiving a strong reinforcement from Hispaniola, marched from Lima with 700 men to relieve his brothers at Cuzco from the Peruvians, not having yet heard of the usurpation of Almagro. Having marched twenty-five leagues, he received the intelligence of the death of one of his brothers, the imprisonment of the other two, and of the determined opposition of Almagro; this news so much alarmed him that he immediately returned to Lima, and dispatched a messenger to Cuzco to treat with Almagro; but that officer instead of returning an answer marched to within twenty leagues of Lima, where he was met by Pizarro who seemed earnest to heal the breach amicably; but after various endeavours to obtain this end, he found it necessary to have recourse to force; and Almagro, finding himself unable to cope with him, retreated to Cuzco, whither Ferdinand Pizarro pursued him: a dreadful battle then took place near that city, on a plain called Salinas or Cachipampa, in which Almagro was defeated and taken prisoner, and was soon afterwards brought to trial and beheaded.

This important affair being settled, the marquess dispatched troops in all directions to conquer and subdue those provinces which remained under the domination of the Indians. In these expeditions, and in settling the affairs of his government, Pizarro was fully occupied for two years, during which time he was much distressed by the mutinous conduct of the Almagrian party, who at last assassinated him on the 26th of June, 1541.

Soon after the untimely death of Pizarro, Vaca de Castro was appointed governor, while the court of Madrid were employed in taking measures to put a stop to the contentions of the colonies. He was removed to make room for Blasco Vela, who was nominated the first viceroy of Peru, and who landed at Tumbez in the month of February, 1543. The conduct of this viceroy increased the disaffection and contention of the colonists, many of whom siding with Gonzalo Pizarro, chose him as their leader. After various actions with the royal troops, Gonzalo at last utterly defeated them in a pitched battle, in which the viceroy was slain.

Upon this occasion Gonzalo Pizarro was advised to assume the sceptre of Peru, but he chose to treat with Spain. During the interval which elapsed before the return of his ambassadors, Pedro de la Gasca, a priest, was sent over as president: finding he could not persuade Pizarro to any terms, he gave him battle, in which the latter was taken, and being brought to trial by the president, was beheaded on the 10th of April, 1548.

After this action, Gasca set himself about to reform abuses, and render the government more stable; he was occupied in this work till 1550, when wishing to return to a private station, he quitted Peru, and entrusted the command of the presidency to the royal court of audience, till the pleasure of the king should be manifested.

After the departure of Gasca, till the arrival of the second viceroy, Mendoza, Peru continued to be in a state of continual ferment, which lasted more or less until his death. The next viceroy was the Marquess de Canete, who arrived in Lima in July 1557. He was succeeded in July 1560, by the Conde de Neiva, who, dying suddenly, was replaced by Lope Garcia de Castro with the title of president, until Francisco de Toledo arrived from Spain, to assume the viceregal government, who had been only two years in Peru, when he attacked Tupac Amaru, the son of Manco Capac, who had taken refuge in the mountains. A force of two hundred and fifty men was detached to Vilcapampa under Martin Garcia Loyola, to whom the Inca surrendered himself, with his wife, two sons, and a daughter, who were all carried prisoners to Cuzco.

This unfortunate prince was brought to trial for supposed crimes, and at the same time, all the sons of Indian women by the Spaniards, were committed to confinement, under the charge of endeavouring to assist Tupac Amaru, in overturning the Spanish government. Many of these poor people were put to the torture, others were banished, and all the males who were nearly related to the Inca, or who were capable of succeeding to the throne, were ordered to live in Lima, where the whole of them died.

Tupac Amaru was sentenced to lose his head; previous to the execution, the priests baptized him in the prison, from whence he was led on a mule to the scaffold, with his hands tied, and a halter about his neck, amid the tears of his people. Thus ended the line of the emperors of Peru; than whom, a more beneficent race of monarchs, in a barbarous state, has never been known.

The viceroy, Toledo, after continuing sixteen years in Peru, amassed a large fortune and returned to Spain, when falling under royal displeasure, he was confined to his house and his property sequestered, which preyed so much on his mind, that he died of a broken heart. Martin Garcia Loyola, who had made Tupac Amaru prisoner, married a Coya, or Peruvian princess, daughter of the former Inca Sayri Tupac, by whom he acquired a large estate; but being made governor of Chili, he was slain in that country by the natives.

After the death of Tupac Amaru, the royal authority was gradually established as firmly in Peru as in the other Spanish colonies, and that country has continued to be governed by viceroys appointed by the Spanish king, up to the present time. The only event of any particular importance, which has occurred till very lately, was the insurrection of the natives in 1781, under Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui, a descendant of, and styling himself Tupac Amaru. He was born in Tongusuca, a village of Tinta, and had been carefully educated by his family at home; on the death of his father, he petitioned the Spanish court to restore him the title of Marquess of Oropesa, which had been granted to Sayri Tupac, his ancestor; but finding his request unattended to, retired to the mountains, and giving himself out as the only and true sovereign of Peru, the Indians flocked to his standard, especially those in the neighbourhood of Cuzco, who had suffered severely from the tyranny of the corregidor Arriaga.

With every mark of the most profound submission, they bound the imperial fillet on his brow, and he was proclaimed Inca by the title of Tupac Amaru the Second: collecting an immense army he appeared before the walls of Cuzco, and in the beginning of his campaign, he protected all ecclesiastics and people born in America, vowing vengeance solely against the European Spaniards; but his followers, elevated by the success which every where attended them, began a war of extermination against all but Indians, the consequences of which were dreadful, and will ever be remembered in Peru.

His brother Diego, and his nephew Andres Condorcanqui, favoured this disposition of the Indians, and committed enormities which it was out of the power of Tupac Amaru to repress. This insurrection lasted two years, and he made himself master of the provinces or districts of Quispicanchi, Tinta, Lampa, Asangara, Caravaja and Chumbivilca; but was at last surprised and taken prisoner with all his family, and a short time after this event, they were all quartered in the city of Cuzco, excepting Diego, who had escaped.

So great was the veneration of the Peruvians for Tupac Amaru, that when he was led to execution, they prostrated themselves in the streets, though surrounded by soldiers, and uttered piercing cries and execrations as they beheld the last of the children of the sun torn to pieces.

Diego surrendered voluntarily, and a convention was signed between him and the Spanish general, at the village of Siguani, in Tinta, on the 21st of January, 1782; from which time he lived peaceably with his family, but was taken up twenty years afterwards on suspicion of being concerned in a revolt that happened at Riobamba, in Quito, in which great cruelty was exercised against the whites. His judges condemned him to lose his head, and since that period, Peru has been in a state of profound tranquillity, though now surrounded by states torn with the most dreadful convulsions.

Having now related the principal occurrences concerning the history of Peru, we shall give a concise description of the people of that kingdom; and in so doing, shall be led to the general relation of the manner in which the vast continent of Spanish America has been governed, and to a summary of the history of the present struggle.

The Peruvians, at the time they were discovered by Pizarro, had advanced to a considerable degree of civilization; they knew the arts of architecture, sculpture, mining, working the precious metals and jewels, cultivated their land, were clothed, and had a regular system of government, and a code of civil and religious laws. The lands were divided into regular allotments, one share being consecrated to the sun, and its products appropriated to the support of religious rites; the second belonged to the Incas, and was devoted to the support of the government, and the last and largest share was set aside for the people. These were cultivated in common, no person having a longer title than one year to the portion given him.

In their agricultural pursuits they displayed great diligence and ingenuity, irrigating their fields, and manuring them with the dung of sea fowls procured from the islands on the coast; they also turned up the earth with a sort of mattock formed of hard wood. In the arts of architecture they had advanced far beyond the other nations of America. The great temple of the sun at Pachacamac, with the palace of the Inca, and the fortress, were so connected together as to form one great building half a league in circuit, and many ruins of palaces and temples still existing, prove the extent of the knowledge and perseverance of these people.

The immense obelisks of Tiahuacan, and the town of Chulunacas, with the mausolea of Chachapoyas, which are conical stone buildings supporting large rude busts, are among the most singular, though unfortunately the least known of the Peruvian remains; and are equally curious as the great military roads with their accompanying palaces or posts; together with the buildings still existing in the province of Quito, which have already been described.

Their skill in polishing stones to form mirrors, in sharpening them to serve as hatchets and instruments of war, was as admirable as the ingenuity they displayed in all their ornamental works of gold, silver and precious stones.

In the religion of the Peruvians few of those sanguinary traits which so forcibly marked the character of the worship of the Mexicans were found; they adored the Sun as the supreme Deity, under whose influence they also acknowledged various dependent gods; and instead of offering human victims on the altars, they presented to that glorious luminary a part of the productions of the earth, which had come to life and maturity through his genial warmth, and they sacrificed as an oblation of gratitude some animals before his shrine, placing around it the most skilful works of their hands.

Next to the sun they beheld their Incas with the greatest reverence, looking upon them as his immediate descendants and vicegerents upon earth. The system universally adopted by these patriarchal kings, bound the affections of their people more firmly to them, than even this their supposed divine legation; and as they never intermarried with their subjects, they were kept at so great a distance that their power was unbounded. The only sanguinary feature displayed in the Peruvian rites, was in their burials; as, on the death of the Incas, or of any great curaca or chief, a number of his servants and domestic animals were slain and interred around the guacas or tumuli, that they might be ready to attend them in a future state, in which these people fully believed. When Huana Capac, the greatest of the Incas, was buried, 1000 victims were doomed to accompany his body to the tomb.

In ancient Peru the only very large city was Cuzco or Couzco; every where else the people lived in villages or in scattered habitations: and as the palaces of the Incas and their fortresses, which were built in all parts of the country, were rarely surrounded with the houses of the natives, very few distinct towns remain.

The ancient Peruvians had traditions concerning a deluge, in which their ancestors were all drowned, excepting a few who got into caves in the high mountains; they also adored two beings named Con and Pachacamac, who created the race of Peruvians in an extraordinary manner; and they asserted that Pachacamac dwelt amongst them till the Spaniards came, when he suddenly disappeared.

But the Peruvians of the present day are a very different people from their progenitors, as they are timid and dispirited, melancholy in their temperament, severe and inexorable in the exercise of authority, wonderfully indifferent to the general concerns of life, and seeming to have little notion, or dread of death. They stand in awe of their European masters, but secretly dislike and shun their society, and they are said to be of a distrustful disposition, and though robust and capable of enduring great fatigue, yet they are very lazy. Their habitations are miserable hovels, destitute of every convenience or accommodation, and disgustingly filthy; their dress is poor and mean, and their food coarse and scanty; their strongest propensity is to spirituous liquors, and to that they sacrifice all other considerations, but which is unmixed with any love for gaming: they follow all the external rites of the catholic religion, and spend large sums in masses and processions.

Soon after the conquest of America, the country and the Indians were parcelled out into encomiendas, a sort of feudal benefices which were divided among the conquerors, and the priests and lawyers who arrived from Spain; the holder of this property was obliged to reside on his estate, to see the Indians properly instructed in religions duties, and to protect their persons. In return the natives were bound to pay the encomendero a certain tribute, but they were not reduced to absolute slavery. This system was variously modified and changed by the successors of Charles V. who introduced it, till the reign of Philip V. when it was entirely abolished on account of the continual complaints which were made to that sovereign of the exactions of the Spaniards, and their total neglect of the Indians.

This plan was followed by one still more fatal, that of the repartimientos; according to which the governor or judge of the district was directed to supply the Indians in his department with cattle, seed corn, implements of agriculture, clothes and food at a fixed price. The abuses attendant on such a system were enormous, and so grievously were the natives afflicted that it at last was abolished in 1779. Spanish America was incorporated to the crown of Castile by Charles V. on September 14th, 1559, at a solemn council held in Barcelona; but notwithstanding this decree declared that the white inhabitants of America were to have no personal controul over the Indians, the greatest enormities were still committed.

In Caraccas the natives were enslaved, and carried to the plantations in the West Indies, from which they were not freed till after the repeated remonstrances of Las Casas, Montesino, Cordova and others; these remonstrances gave rise to the establishment of the royal audiences and the council of the Indies; the jurisdiction of the latter extending to every department; all laws and ordinances relative to the government and police of the colonies originate in it, and must be approved by two-thirds of the members; all the offices, of which the nomination is reserved as a royal prerogative, are conferred on this council, and to it every person employed in Spanish America is responsible.

It receives all dispatches, &c., and is in fact the government of the Indies.

Since the establishment of this council, the royal audiences or superior tribunals, and the regular succession of viceroys and captain-generals, the Americas have been governed, if not with less rigour, at least with more beneficial results to the Indians. They are left to manage their own concerns as they please, and no one can interfere in the disposal of their property. In Peru alone they are subjected to the mita, a law obliging them to furnish certain quotas for the mining operations, but for which they are well paid, and generally become resident miners; they are not under the controul of the inquisition, and pay no other tax than a capitation tribute, which is very moderate, and rather a mark of vassalage or distinction from the other classes, than a burden.

In their towns the Indians are always the magistrates, and they are allowed to enter into holy orders: but no Spaniard or white is permitted by the law to intermarry with them or to settle in their towns, the Indians always residing in a distinct quarter from the Europeans, and other castes. The Indians and their descendants are the only people in this part of the world who can endure the unwholesomeness and fatigues attendant on the mining operations, as the Spaniards and Negroes sink under the toil in a short time; but the number of Indians has decreased since the conquest to an alarming extent from the ravages of the small-pox, and from the fatal effects of intoxicating liquors, though according to the statements of late travellers this branch of the population is again on the increase, probably owing to the general introduction of vaccination, and to the gradual abolition of the mita in most of the governments.