Inventions in the Century

At first only pictures of natural objects were taken; but in learning of Daguerre's process Dr. John William Draper of New York, a native of England and adopted son of America, the brilliant author of The Intellectual Development of Europe, and other great works, in the same year, 1839, took portraits of persons by photography, and he was the first to do this. Draper was also the first in America to reveal the wonders of the spectroscope; and he was first to show that each colour of the spectrum had its own peculiar chemical effect. This was in 1847.

The sun was now fairly harnessed in the service of man in the new great art of Photography. Natural philosophers, chemists, inventors, mechanics, all now pressed forward, and still press forward to improve the art, to establish new growths from the old art, and extend its domains. Those domains have the generic term of Photo-Processes. Daguerreotypy, while the father of them all, is now hardly practised as Daguerre practised it, and has become a small subordinate sub-division of the great class. Yet more faithful likenesses are not yet produced than by this now old process. Among the children of the Photo-Process family are the Calotype, Ambrotype, Ferreotype, Collodion and Silver Printing, Carbon Printing, Heliotype, Heliogravure, Photoengraving (relief intaglio-Woodburytype), Photolithography; Alberttype; Photozincograph, Photogelatine-printing; Photomicrography (to depict microscopic objects), Kinetographs, and Photosculpture. A world of mechanical contrivances have been invented: —Octnometers, Baths, Burnishing tools, Cameras and Camera stands, Magazine and Roll holders; Dark rooms and Focussing devices, Heaters and Driers; Exposure Meters, etc. etc.

The Kinetograph, for taking a series of pictures of rapidly moving objects, and by which the living object, person or persons, are made to appear moving before us as they moved when the picture was taken, is a marvellous invention; and yet simple when the process is understood. Photography and printing have combined to revolutionise the art of illustration. Exact copies of an original, whether of a painting or a photograph, are now produced on paper with all the original shades and colours. The long-sought-for problem of photographing in colours has in a measure been solved. The "three colour processes" is the name given to the new offspring of the inventors which reproduces by the camera the natural colours of objects.

The scientists Maxwell Young and Helmholtz established the theory that the three colours, red, green, and blue, were the primary colours, and from a mixture of these, secondary colours are produced. Henry Collen in 1865 laid down the lines on which the practical reduction should take place; and within the last decade F. E. Ives of Philadelphia has invented the Photochromoscope for producing pictures in their natural colours. The process consists in blending in one picture the separate photographic views taken on separate negative plates, each sensitised to receive one of the primary colours, which are then exposed and blended simultaneously in a triple camera.

Plates and films and many other articles and processes have helped to establish the Art of Photography on its new basis.

Among the minor inventions relating to Art, mention may be made of that very useful article the lead pencil, which all have employed so much time in sharpening to the detriment of time and clean hands. Within a decade, pencils in which the lead or crayon is covered instead of with wood, with slitted, perforated or creased paper, spirally rolled thereon, and on which by unrolling a portion at a time a new point is exposed; or that other style in which a number of short, sharpened marking leads, or crayons, are arranged in series and adapted to be projected one after the other as fast as worn away.

In Painting modern inventions and discoveries have simply added to the instrumentalities of genius but have created no royal road to the art made glorious by Titian and Raphael. It has given to the artists, through its chemists, a world of new colours, and through its mechanics new and convenient appliances.

Air Brushes have proved a great help by which the paint or other colouring matter is sprayed in heavy, light, or almost invisible showers to produce backgrounds by the force of air blown upon the pigments held in drops at the end of a fine spraying tube. Made of larger proportions, this brush has been used for fresco painting, and for painting large objects, such as buildings, which it admits of doing with great rapidity.

A description of modern methods of applying colours to porcelain and pottery is given in the chapter treating of those subjects.

Telegraphic pictures: – Perhaps it is appropriate in closing this chapter that reference be made to that process by which the likeness of the distant reader may be taken telegraphically. A picture in relief is first made by the swelled gelatine or other process; a tracing point is then moved in the lines across the undulating surface of the pictures, and the movements of this tracer are imparted by suitable electrical apparatus to a cutter or engraving tool at the opposite end of the line and there reproduced upon a suitable substance.

CHAPTER XXVII.

SAFES AND LOCKS

Prior to the century safes were not constructed to withstand the test of intense heat. Efforts were numerous, however, to render them safe against the entrance of thieves, but the ingenuity of the thieves advanced more rapidly than the ingenuity of safe-makers. And the race between these two classes of inventors still continues. For with the exercise of a vast amount of ingenuity in intricate locks, aided by all the advancement of science as to the nature of metals, their tough manufacture and their resistance to explosives, thieves still manage to break in and steal. The only sure protection against burglars at the close of the nineteenth century appears to consist of what it was at the close of any previous century – the preponderance of physical force and the best weapons. Among the latest inventions are electrical connections with the safe, whereby tampering therewith alarms one or more watchmen at a near station.

A classification of safes embraces, Fire-proof, Burglar-proof, Safe Bolt Works, Express and Deposit Safes and Boxes, Circular Doors, Pressure Mechanism, and Water and Air Protective Devices.

The attention of the earliest inventors of the century were directed toward making safes fire-proof. In England the first patent granted for a fire-proof safe was to Richard Scott in 1801. It had two casings, an inner and outer one, including the door, and the interspace was filled in with charcoal, or wood, and treated with a solution of alkaline salt.

This idea of interspacing filled in with non-combustible material has been generally followed ever since. The particular inventions in that line consist in the discovery and appliance of new lining materials, variations in the form of the interspacing, and new methods in the construction of the casings, and the selection of the best metals for such construction.

In 1834 William Marr of England patented a lining for a double metallic chest, filled with non-combustible materials such as mica, or talc clay, lime, and graphite. Asbestos commenced to be used about the same time.

The great fire in New York City in 1835, destroying hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of property of every description, gave a great impetus to the invention of fire-proof safes in America.

B. G. Wilder there patented in 1843 his celebrated safe, now extensively used throughout the world. It consisted of a double box of wrought-iron plates strengthened at the edges with bar iron, with a bar across the middle; and as a filling for the interspaces he used hydrated gypsum, hydraulic cement, plaster of paris, steatite, alum, and the dried residuum of soda water.

Herring was another American who invented celebrated safes, made with a boiler-iron exterior, a hardened steel inner safe, with the interior filled with a casting of franklinite around rods of soft steel. Thus the earth, air and water were ransacked for lining materials, in some cases more for the purpose of obtaining a patent than to accomplish any real advance in the art. Water itself was introduced as a lining, made to flow through the safes, sometimes from the city mains, and so retained that when the temperature in case of fire reached 212° F. it became steam; and an arrangement for introducing steam in place of water was contrived. Among other lining materials found suitable were soapstone, alumina, ammonia, copperas, starch, Epsom salts, and gypsum, paper, pulp, and alum, and a mixture of various other materials.

After safes were produced that would come out of fiery furnaces where they had been buried for days without even the smell of fire or smoke upon their contents, inventors commenced to direct their attention to burglar-proof safes.

Chubb, in 1835, patented a process of rendering wooden safes burglar proof by lining them with steel, or case-hardened iron plate. Newton in 1853 produced one made of an outer shell of cast iron, an interior network of wrought iron rods, and fluid iron poured between these, so that a compound mass was formed of different degrees of resistance to turn aside the burglar's tools. Chubb again, in 1857, and in subsequent years, and Chartwood, Glocker, and Thompson and Tann and others in England invented new forms to prevent the insertion of wedges and the drilling by tools. Hall and Marvin of the United States also invented safes for the same purpose. Hall had thick steel plates dovetailed together; and angle irons tenoned at the corners. Marvin's safe was globeshaped, to present no salient points for the action of tools, made of chrome steel, mounted in this shape on a platform, or enclosed in a fire-proof safe. Herring also invented a safe in which he hinged and grooved the doors with double casings, and which he hung with a lever-hinge, provided the doors with separate locks and packed all the joints with rubber to prevent the operation of the air pump – which had become a dangerous device of burglars with which to introduce explosives to blow open the doors.

Still later and more elaborate means have been used to frustrate the burglars. Electricity has been converted into an automatic warder to guard the castle and the safe and to give an alarm to convenient stations when the locks or doors are meddled with and the proper manipulation not used. Express safes for railroad cars have been made of parts telescoped or crowded together by hydraulic power, requiring heavy machinery for locking and unlocking, and this machinery is located in machine shops along the route and not accessible to burglars.

About 1815 inventors commenced to produce devices to show with certainty if a lock had been tampered with. The keyhole was closed by a revolving metallic curtain, and paper was secured over the keyhole. As a further means of detection photographs of some irregular object are made, one of which is placed over the keyhole and the other is retained. This prevents the substitution of one piece of paper for another piece without detection. A large number of patents have been taken out on glass coverings for locks which have to be broken before the lock can be turned. These are called seal locks.

Locks of various kinds, consisting at least of the two general features of a bolt and a key to move the bolt, have existed from very ancient days. The Egyptians, the Hebrews and the Chinese, and Oriental nations generally had locks and keys of ponderous size. Isaiah speaks of the key of the house of David; and Homer writes sonorously of the lock in the house of Penelope with its brazen key, the respondent wards, the flying bars and valves which,

"Loud as a bull makes hills and valley ring,So roared the lock when it released the spring."

The castles, churches and convents of the middle ages had their often highly ornamental locks and their warders to guard and open them. Later, locks were invented with complex wards. These are carved pieces of metal in the lock which fit into clefts or grooves in the key and prevent the lock from being opened except by its own proper key.

As early as 1650 the Dutch had invented the Letter lock, the progenitor of the modern permutation lock, consisting of a lock the bolt of which is surrounded by several rings on which were cut the letters of the alphabet, which by a prearrangement on the part of the owner were made to spell a certain word or number of words before the lock could be opened. Carew, in verses written in 1621, refers to one of these locks as follows: —

"As doth a lock that goes with letters; for, till every one be known,The lock's as fast as though you had found none."

The art had also advanced in the eighteenth century to the use of tumblers in locks, the lever or latch or plate which falls into a notch of the bolt and prevents it from being shot until it has been raised or released by the action of the key. Barron in England in 1778 obtained a patent for such a lock.

Joseph Bramah, who has before been referred to in connection with the hydraulic press he invented, also in 1784 invented and patented in England a lock which obtained a world-wide reputation and a century's extensive use. It was the first, or among the first of locks which troubled modern burglars' picks. Its leading features were a key with longitudinal slots, a barrel enclosing a spring, plates, called sliders, notched unequally and resting against the spring, a plate with a central perforation and slits leading therefrom to engage the notches of the slides simultaneously and allow the frame to be turned by the key so as to actuate the bolt. Chubb and Hobbs of England made important improvements in tumbler locks, which for a long time were regarded as unpickable.

Most important advances have been made during the century in Combination or Permutation Locks and Time Locks. For a long time permutation or combination locks consisted of modifications of one general principle, and that was the Dutch letter lock already referred to, or the wheel lock, composed of a series of disks with letters around their edges. The interior arrangement is such as to prevent the bolt being shot until a series of letters were in line, forming a combination known only to the operator. Time locks are constructed on the principle of clockwork, so that they cannot be opened even with the proper key until a regulated interval of time has elapsed.

Among the most celebrated combination and time locks of the century are those known as the Yale locks, chiefly the inventions of Louis Yale, Jr., of Philadelphia. The Yale double dial lock is a double combination bank or safe lock having two dials, each operating its own set of tumblers and bolts, so that two persons, each in possession of his own combination, must be present at a certain time in order to unlock it. If this double security is not desired, one person alone may be possessed of both combinations, or the combinations may be set as one. In their time locks a safe can be set so as to not only render it impossible to unlock except at a predetermined time each day, but the arrangement is such that on intervening Sundays the time mechanism will entirely prevent the operation of the lock or the opening of the door on that day.

Another feature of the lock is the thin, flat keys with bevel-edged notchings, or with longitudinal sinuous corrugations to fit a narrow slit of a cylinder lock. To make locks for use with the corrugated keys machines of as great ingenuity as the locks were devised. In such a lock the keyhole, which is a little very narrow slit, is formed sinuously to correspond to the sinuosities of the key. No other key will fit it, nor can it be picked by a tool, as the tool must be an exact duplicate of the key in order to enter and move in the keyhole.

Of late years numerous locks have been invented for the special uses to which they are to be applied. Thus, one type of lock is that for safety deposit vaults and boxes, in which a primary key in the keeping of a janitor operates alone the tumblers or guard mechanism to set the lock, while the box owner may use a secondary key to completely unlock the box or vault.

Master, or secondary key locks, are now in common use in hotels and apartment-houses, by which the key of the door held by a guest will unlock only his door, but the master key held by the manager or janitor will unlock all the doors. This saves the duplication and multiplicity of a vast number of extra keys.

The value of a simple, cheap, safe, effective lock in a place where its advantages are appreciated by all classes of people everywhere is illustrated in the application of the modern rotary registering lock to the single article of mail bags. Formerly it was not unusual that losses by theft of mail matter were due in part to the extraction of a portion of the mail matter by unlocking or removing the lock and then restoring it in place.

The United States, with its 76,000,000 of people, found it necessary to use in its mail service hundreds of thousands of mail pouches, having locks for securing packages of valuable matter. But these locks are of such character that it is impossible for anyone to break into the bag and conceal the evidence of his crime. The unfortunate thief is reduced to the necessity of stealing the whole pouch. Losses under this system have grown so small "as to be almost incapable of mathematical calculation."

Safe and convenient locks for so very many purposes are now so common, even to prevent the unauthorised use of an umbrella, or the unfriendly taking away of a bicycle or other vehicle, that notwithstanding the nineteenth century dynamite with which burglars still continue to blow open the best constructed safes and vaults, still a universal sense of greater security in such matters is beginning to manifest itself; and not only the loss of valuables by fire and theft is becoming the exception, but the temptation to steal is being gradually removed.

CHAPTER XXVIII.

CARRYING MACHINES

The reflecting observer delights occasionally to shift the scenes of the present stage and bring to the front the processions of the past. That famous triumphal one, for instance, of Ptolemy of Philadelphus, at Alexandria, about 270 B. C., then in the midst of his power and glory, in which there were chariots and cumbrous wagons drawn by elephants and goats, antelopes, oryxes, buffaloes, ostriches, gnus and zebras; then a tribe of the Scythians, when with many scores of oxen they were shifting their light, big round houses, made of felt cloth and mounted on road carts, to a new camping place; next a wild, mad dash of the Roman charioteers around the amphitheatre, or a triumphal march with chariots of carved ivory bearing aloft the ensigns of victory; and now an army of the ancient Britons driving through these same charioteers of Cæsar with their own rude chariots, having sharp hooks and crooked iron blades extending from their axles; now a "Lady's Chair" of the fourteenth century – the state carriage of the time – with a long, wooden-roofed and windowed body, having a door at each end, resting on a cumbrous frame without springs, and the axles united rigidly to a long reach; next comes a line of imposing clumsy state coaches of the sixteenth century, with bodies provided with pillars to support the roof, and adorned with curtains of cloth and leather, but still destitute of springs; and here in stately approach comes a line of more curious and more comfortable "royal coaches" of the seventeenth century, when springs were for the first time introduced; and now rumbles forward a line of those famous old English stage coaches originated in the seventeenth century, which were two days flying from Oxford to London, a distance of fifty-five miles; but a scene in the next century shows these ponderous vehicles greatly improved, and the modern English stage mail-coaches of Palmer in line. Referring to Palmer's coaches, Knight says: "Palmer, according to De Quincey, was twice as great a man as Galileo, because he not only invented mail-coaches (of more general practical utility than Jupiter's satellites), but married the daughter of a duke, and succeeded in getting the post-office to use them. This revolutionised the whole business." The coaches were built with steel springs, windows of great strength and lightness combined, boots for the baggage, seats for a few outside passengers, and a guard with a grand uniform, to protect the mail and stand for the dignity of his majesty's government.

By the system of changing horses frequently great speed was attained, and the distance from Edinburgh to London, 400 miles, was made in 40 hours. Other lines of coaches, arranged to carry double the number of passengers outside than in, fourteen to six, were made heavier, and took the road more leisurely.

The carts and conveyances of the poor were cumbrous, heavy contrivances, without springs, mostly two-wheel, heavy carts.

The middle classes at that time were not seen riding in coaches of their own, but generally on horseback, as the coaches of the rich were too expensive, and the conveyances of the poor were too rude in construction, and too painful in operation.

Let the observer now pass to the largest and most varied exhibition of the best types of modern vehicles of every description that the world had ever seen, the International Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876, and behold what wonderful changes art, science, invention, and mechanical skill had wrought in this domain. Here were the carriages of the rich, constructed of the finest and most appropriate woods that science and experience had found best adapted for the various parts, requiring the combination of strength and lightness, the best steel for the springs, embodying in themselves a world of invention and discovery, and splendid finish and polish in all parts unknown to former generations.

Here, too, were found vehicles of a great variety for the comfort and convenience of every family, from the smallest to the largest means.

The farmer and the truckman were especially provided for. One establishment making an exhibition at that time, employed some six hundred or seven hundred hands, four hundred horse-power of steam, turning out sixty wagons a day, or one in every ten minutes of each working day in the year.

Here England showed her victoria, her broughams, landaus, phætons, sporting-carts, wagonettes, drays and dog-carts; Canada her splendid sleighs; France her superb barouches, carriages, double-top sociables, the celebrated Collinge patent axle-trees and springs; Germany the best carriage axles, springs and gears; Russia its famous low-wheeled fast-running carriages; Norway its carryalls, or sulkies, and sleighs strongly built, and made of wood from those vast forests that ever abound in strength and beauty. One ancient sleigh there was, demurely standing by its modern companions, said to have been built in 1625, and it was still good. America stood foremost in carriage wheels of best materials and beautiful workmanship, bent rims, turned and finished spokes, mortised hubs, steel tires, business and farm wagons, carts and baby carriages. Each trade and field of labour had its own especially adapted complete and finished vehicle. There were hay wagons and hearses; beer wagons and ice carts; doctors' buggies, express wagons, drays, package delivery wagons; peddlers' wagons with all the shelves and compartments of a miniature store, skeleton wagons, and sportsmen's, and light and graceful two and four "wheelers." Beautiful displays of bent and polished woods, a splendid array of artistic, elegant, and useful harnesses, and all the traps that go to make modern means of conveyance by animal power so cheap, convenient, strong and attractive that civilisation seemed to have reached a stop in principles of construction of vehicles and in their materials, and since contents itself in improving details.

To this century is due the development of that class of carriages, the generic term for which is Velocipedes– a word which would imply a vehicle propelled by the feet, although it has been applied to vehicles propelled by the hands and steered by the feet. This name originated with the French, and several Frenchmen patented velocipedes from 1800 to 1821.