The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole

On reaching latitude 84° a lead was encountered over which no crossing could be found, and they were forced to camp on a large floe which drifted steadily eastward. Here some sledges were broken up to cook dog-meat for the party. On the 5th May two Eskimo, sent out as scouts, reported young ice a few miles distant. It was decided to attempt to cross it. The thin ice bent beneath them, but by using snow-shoes the crossing was effected in safety.

During the next week the party had to cut their way through a terrible chaos of ice, and on the 12th May they reached the Greenland coast at Cape Neumayer. Here they succeeded in obtaining four hares.

Near Cape Neumayer sledge-tracks were found, and as these had no doubt been made by one of the supporting parties, Peary sent two Eskimo to follow the tracks. They returned next day with Clark and his three Eskimo, who were in a terribly famished condition. Fortunately, seven musk-oxen were secured, and for two days the party ate and slept.

The remainder of the march back to the Roosevelt was accomplished without any special difficulty. Peary now called in the relief parties who were still out. After a short rest, a trip was made to the west of Grant Land. New land, named “Crocker Land,” was seen to the north-west. On the 30th July, Peary again returned to the Roosevelt, which next day started on the return journey.

Peary had decided that the ship was so badly damaged that it could not safely remain another winter exposed to the ice. He therefore determined to return home for repairs, and to sail again for the north during the following year. At Lady Franklin Bay it was feared that the ship would have to pass the winter there, but it fortunately managed to get free, and the voyage was resumed.

At Etah the Roosevelt was beached four days for repairs. Again the journey was resumed, but severe storms were encountered, and it was not till 13th October that the vessel reached Hebron, Labrador.

On 6th July 1908 the Roosevelt left New York to carry Commander Peary and his party once more to the Arctic regions. The necessary repairs to the ship had not been finished in time for an expedition in 1907. Sydney, Nova Scotia, was left on 17th July, and Etah on 18th August. The usual course was taken across Smith Sound to Cape Sabine, and then northward. Fog and ice were soon encountered, but the Roosevelt slowly worked her way north as far as Lincoln Bay, where she had to shelter several days. On 2nd September Cape Union was passed, and on the 5th of this month the Roosevelt went into winter quarters near Cape Sheridan – a little north of the position of three years before.

Commander Peary had decided to set out on his final attempt to reach the Pole from Cape Columbia. The winter was occupied in transporting supplies to this point.

On 15th February 1909 the first of the sledges left the Roosevelt, and Peary brought up the rear on 22nd February. The total of all divisions was 7 men of Peary’s party, 59 Eskimo, 140 dogs, and 23 sledges. A start was made over the ice from Cape Columbia on 1st March. Bartlett had been sent on ahead to make a trail. From this point the party consisted of 17 Eskimo, 133 dogs, and 19 sledges, in addition to the 7 men in command. On the first day’s march 10 miles were covered, and on the second the record made by Markham in 1876 was passed. A wide lake of open water was encountered on 4th March, and here the party were delayed till the 11th. A sounding taken here gave 110 fathoms. On the 14th the temperature registered minus 59° F. The first supporting party was sent back on the 15th in charge of Dr. Goodsell, and on the following day Peary found it necessary to send back Professor McMillan, who was suffering from a badly frost-bitten foot. A sounding taken at this camp gave a depth of 825 fathoms, so that the Continental Shelf had now been passed. When latitude 85° 23′ had been reached, the second supporting party, commanded by Borup, turned back. The advance party had now been reduced to 20 men, 10 sledges, and 70 dogs. Leads were frequently met, but good marches were made daily. The third supporting party returned from latitude 86° 38′ with Professor Marvin in command. This reduced the advance division to 9 men, 7 sledges, and 60 dogs. The character of the ice was now favourable for long marches, but still there was danger from open leads. At the end of the second day’s march progress was stopped by open water, and during the night the party found themselves in imminent danger. The ice had broken Bartlett’s igloo adrift, and others were threatening to follow suit. It was with great difficulty that the party managed to save themselves and the dogs. There was considerable commotion in the ice during the remainder of the night and the whole of the next day. The ice then closed together and allowed the party to proceed. North of this point the surface improved, and consisted mostly of heavy old floes covered with hard snow and comparatively level. From latitude 87° 48′ the fourth and last supporting party, commanded by Bartlett, turned back.

Peary had now with him his servant Henson, who had been his faithful companion on nearly all his journeys; Ootam, who had been with him when he made his record three years before; two of the Eskimo who had been with Clark when they narrowly escaped death from starvation; and a fifth man was a young Eskimo who had shown great eagerness for the work. Forty of the best dogs were selected, and five of the best sledges. The supplies were ample for forty days, and Peary believed that with the dogs he could make them last fifty days more.

A determined effort was now to be made to reach the Pole. During the first march of ten hours 25 miles were covered, and after a few hours’ sleep another march of ten hours covered another 20 miles. Again a few hours’ sleep, and a further march of 20 miles brought the party within sight of latitude 89°. The temperature at this time was 40° F. below zero. After a short sleep, the fourth march was made against a bitter wind, and the distance covered was estimated to be at least 25 miles. The party were now getting much fatigued, and it was found necessary to take a longer sleep before beginning the fifth march.

During these four marches the weather had been brilliant, but with the fifth it changed to a dense pall overhead, and the ice beneath was a ghastly white with no relief. The surface, however, was even better than before; there was scarcely any snow on the old floes, and a rise of temperature to 15° F. below zero reduced the friction of the sledges. In twelve hours no less than 40 miles were covered without a sign of a lead. A hasty noon observation was now made, and the latitude was found to be within 3 geographical miles of the Pole. Thirty hours were spent in making observations, in going some 10 miles beyond the camp and about 8 miles to the right of it. Flags were planted, photographs were taken, and the horizon was carefully searched through the telescope for possible land. The minimum temperature during the thirty hours was 33° F., and the maximum 12° F. below zero.

Peary had now at last reached the goal of his ambition – the goal he had been fighting to reach through many years and under tremendous difficulties. His dogged perseverance and stern determination must excite the warmest admiration of every one. During the twenty-three years from 1886 to 1909 he passed fifteen summers and eight winters in the Arctic regions. No matter what view we may take of Dr. Cook’s great achievement, we must admit that Commander Peary, much more than any other man, deserved the great honour of being the first to reach the North Pole.

The return journey was begun on the afternoon of 7th April. The distance from Cape Columbia had been travelled in thirty-seven days, but Peary in returning wished to cover five of the outward marches in three, and he practically succeeded. For a large part of the way he was able to return on his former track, and he had therefore the further advantage of not requiring to build snow-huts. Cape Columbia was reached on 23rd April, so that the distance of 475 English miles from the Pole had been travelled in the astonishing time of sixteen days – an average of about 30 miles per day.

On arrival at the Roosevelt, Peary learned that Professor Marvin had been drowned. Returning in command of the third supporting party, Marvin had reached within 45 miles of Cape Columbia. He had gone on ahead of his Eskimo, and had broken through young ice covering a recent lead. When the Eskimo arrived, they found Marvin’s body floating in the water some distance out from the ice.

On 18th July the Roosevelt left her winter quarters, and reached Cape Sabine on 8th August.

Peary’s final expedition brings out in a striking manner the contrast between his methods and those of the British Expedition of 1875−76. Commander Markham and Sir George Nares were emphatic in their opinion that it was utterly impracticable to reach the North Pole over the ice from the north of Grant Land. Peary’s route was considerably to the west of Markham’s, and no doubt escaped much of the crushed-up ice encountered by the British, but the fact that the full distance to the Pole was covered in thirty-seven days, on at least eight of which Peary was detained by open water, proves that the methods adopted were incomparably superior.

CHAPTER XIV

DR. COOK’S EXPEDITION (1907−9)

[Dr. Cook’s statements, both as regards Mount McKinley and his discovery of the North Pole, have been seriously called in question. The writer prefers to accept his statements until his opponents prove that they are false.

According to the latest reports, a committee of the American Explorers’ Club have examined Dr. Cook’s data regarding his ascent of Mount McKinley, and have come to the conclusion that his data do not stand the test to which they were submitted.

The Council of the Copenhagen University, to whom Dr. Cook sent certain documents for examination, have decided that from the material supplied no proof can be adduced that he reached the North Pole.

As Dr. Cook’s instruments and most of his astronomical observations were left behind at Etah, and are still there in consequence of Peary’s refusal to allow them on his ship, it is impossible at present to pronounce a final judgment.]

Dr. Frederick A. Cook first took part in Arctic exploration as surgeon and ethnologist to Peary’s expedition of 1891. He was then twenty-six years of age. Before the expedition reached Greenland his services were required in a critical emergency. Peary received a fracture of both bones of his leg, and it was to Dr. Cook’s skill that he owed a rapid and successful recovery.

Dr. Cook was one of the party on the ice-cap as far as Humboldt Glacier, and when Peary asked for a volunteer to accompany him to the farthest north, Dr. Cook was the first to offer his services. Peary decided to take Astrup, probably because he wished Dr. Cook to take charge of the base camp where Mrs. Peary and the remainder of the expedition had to wait anxiously till his return. Peary states that “to Dr. Cook’s care may be attributed the almost complete exemption of the party from even the mildest indisposition, and personally I owe much to his professional skill, and unruffled patience and coolness in an emergency. In addition to his work in his special ethnological field, in which he has obtained a large mass of most valuable material concerning a practically unstudied tribe, he was always helpful and an indefatigable worker.”

After his return from the Arctic, Dr. Cook had a great ambition to try the Antarctic, but did not obtain an opportunity till 1897, and he then had to go on very short notice. The Belgian Expedition had considerable trouble and some disappointment in connection with the surgeons appointed. The first candidate was put aside, after acceptance, for personal reasons, and the second declined to go at the last moment for family reasons. Without a knowledge of this difficulty, Dr. Cook cabled to Belgium from America, volunteering his services, though at the time he had not previously written a line, nor was he acquainted with a single individual of the expedition or its representatives. In reply, he received the instruction, “Meet us at Rio, end of September.” He had only a few days to prepare himself and his outfit for a journey which might take one year or several. French was the language spoken on the ship, but Dr. Cook could not speak a word of it. The Commandant, however, could speak English, and all the scientific staff could speak German, with which Dr. Cook was familiar. This expedition, after doing some valuable work, was beset in the ice, and drifted throughout the whole winter. After an absence of fifteen months, it returned to civilisation in the spring of 1899.

Dr. Cook’s next venture was an attempt to reach the summit of Mount McKinley, in Alaska, the highest mountain in North America. His first attempt was made in 1903, and although he reached a height of only 11,400 feet, he explored a good deal of new territory. His second attempt was made in 1906, and was successful. He began the ascent with two companions, but one of them became afraid of the crevasses in the glaciers and returned to the base camp. The summit, 20,390 feet above sea-level, was reached by Dr. Cook and Edward Barrille on 16th September in a temperature of 16° F. below zero.

In the following year, 1907, Dr. Cook quietly made preparations for a daring expedition to the North Pole. He was fortunate in having a wealthy friend, John R. Bradley, who paid all expenses. A strong fishing schooner was purchased and well stocked with suitable supplies. Mr. Bradley was especially interested in Arctic game, and a considerable time was spent in hunting walruses and other large animals. At Annootok, 25 miles to the north of Etah, a large settlement of natives was found, in a most prosperous condition, and here Dr. Cook decided to make his winter quarters. Rudolph Francke was chosen to be his only companion. The necessary supplies of food and fuel were landed from the schooner, and a winter house was soon erected. Steps were at once taken to secure a large supply of meat and blubber to support the Eskimo during the winter, and to make provision for the families during the absence of the men accompanying the expedition in the spring. The whole of the winter was occupied in preparing furs and equipment of all kinds.

Cook had an abundance of the best hickory wood, and the sledges were made of a pattern combining the qualities of the Yukon and the Eskimo. Unlike many others, he did not abandon the old-fashioned iron shoes for strips of German silver. For dog-harness the Eskimo pattern was adopted, but in order to prevent the dogs eating the harness, the shoulder-straps were made of folds of strong canvas, while the traces were cut from cotton log-line.

Pemmican, made of pounded dry beef, sprinkled with a few raisins, some currants, and a small quantity of sugar, was selected as the staple food both for men and dogs.

Early in January 1908 some sledges were sent across Smith Sound to explore a route and to advance supplies. These advance expeditions were only partly successful, however, owing to storms having rendered the moonlight of little service.

The main expedition left Annootok on 19th February 1908. It consisted of eleven men, one hundred and three dogs, and eleven heavily loaded sledges. The crossing of Smith Sound to Cape Sabine was found to be about the most difficult part of the whole journey. The temperature was low, and as the season was early, there were only a few hours of sunlight daily. From Cape Sabine a course was made into Flagler Fiord. From the head of this fiord Ellesmere Island was crossed to Bay Fiord. In crossing the land the temperature went down to the astonishingly low figure of 83° F. below zero.

In Bay Fiord a large number of musk-oxen were obtained, which enabled the party to save their provisions. From Bay Fiord the expedition entered Eureka Sound, and proceeded northward along the coast of Heiberg Island. The ice was fairly smooth, and long marches were made. Caches of food and ammunition were left along Heiberg Island for the return journey, which Dr. Cook intended to make by way of Cañon Fiord. As an abundance of musk-oxen, bears, and hares were obtained, it was found unnecessary to use the provisions taken from Greenland. This also supplied them with sufficient fat to use as fuel in the snow-houses which were nightly built for sleeping-quarters.

Svartevog, at the north end of Heiberg Island, was reached on the 17th March. A distance of nearly 400 geographical miles had been covered in twenty-eight days. This included the difficult and dangerous crossing of Smith Sound, and the crossing of Ellesmere Island. It was a remarkable feat, and justified the leader in daring the remaining 525 miles which lay between him and the Pole.

At Svartevog a cache was made in which were placed not only a large quantity of food, but also many discarded articles of equipment. Dr. Cook had decided to take only two Eskimo with him on the final part of the journey to the Pole. The two men chosen were Etukishuk and Ahwelah, each twenty years old. Twenty-six dogs were picked, and provisions for eighty days were loaded on two sledges. The sledges were made of hickory and had iron shoes. The provisions consisted of pemmican, musk-ox meat, tea, coffee, sugar, condensed milk, biscuits, and pea-soup. By way of fuel, 40 lb. petroleum, 2 lb. wood-alcohol, 3 lb. of candles, and 1 lb. of matches were carried. Each sledge carried 600 lb., which included the following articles of equipment: pails, cups, and teaspoons made of aluminium; 1 tablespoon, 3 tin plates, 6 pocket-knives, 2 butcher-knives, 1 saw-knife, 2 rifles, 110 cartridges, 1 hatchet, 1 Alpine axe, a 12-foot folding canvas boat, 1 silk tent, 2 reindeer sleeping-bags, and screws, nails, and rivets. The sledges weighed 52 lb. each, and the weight of the canvas boat was 34 lb. In addition to these, Dr. Cook had 3 compasses, 1 sextant, 1 glass artificial horizon, 1 pedometer, 3 pocket chronometers, 1 watch, 3 thermometers, 1 aneroid barometer, and a camera with films.

On the march Dr. Cook wore woollen drawers, a bird-skin shirt, a blue-fox coat, bear-skin pants, kamiks and hare-skin stockings. A band of fox-tails was fastened under the knee and about the waist. A seal-skin coat and some extra clothing were also carried in the personal bag.

On the morning of 18th March six of the Eskimo left Svartevog on the return journey. Koolootingwah and Inugito were taken on by Dr. Cook as a supporting party to give assistance over the rough ice of the pack-edge. Shortly after noon Dr. Cook started over the polar floes, on a course slightly west of north. The first day’s march covered 26 miles. Next morning the temperature was minus 56° F. Some troublesome crushed-ice was encountered on the second march, but yet the party added 21 miles to their credit. The difficulties increased on the third day, and the distance travelled was reduced to 16 miles. Here Dr. Cook sent his two supporting Eskimo back. They returned with empty sledges, and although their dogs had received no food during the previous three days, they hoped to cover the 63 miles to land in one long day’s travel! They carried a letter instructing Francke to wait until 5th June 1908, and if Dr. Cook had not returned he was to place Koolootingwah in charge and go home, either by the whalers or by Danish ships to the south.

Dr. Cook believed that he had now passed beyond the zone of ice crushed by the influence of land-pressure. On the morning of the fourth march the temperature was at the low figure of 63° below zero F., but fortunately there was no wind. Heiberg Island was now nearly lost to view. A march of fourteen hours carried the party 29 miles. Soon after the usual snow-house was built, a storm arose, and a further start was not made until the afternoon of the following day. From minus 59° the temperature rose to minus 46°, but the wind made the party feel the piercing cold very keenly. This march brought them to a great lead several miles wide. It was covered with ice too thin to be crossed with safety. A partially bridged place was, however, discovered about a mile from camp, and the low temperature during the night had strengthened the ice sufficiently for an attempt to be made to cross it. On snow-shoes, Dr. Cook led the way with spread legs. In two crossings all the supplies were landed on the other side.

This was probably an extension westwards of the same lead encountered by Peary, and may indicate the dividing line between the central polar pack and the land-ice.

A course was now set to reach the 85th parallel on the 97th meridian. At noon on the 24th March a satisfactory observation gave the position as latitude 83° 31′; longitude, 96° 27′. From here a glimpse was obtained of what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west.

The bright light of the sun now began to trouble the eyes, but amber-coloured goggles were found to be a very satisfactory protection.

On the 25th March a hurricane was experienced, and during the storm the temperature rose to minus 26° F. The ice cracked with thundering noise, and Dr. Cook sank into a crevasse which formed under the floor of the snow-house where he was lying in his sleeping-bag. He was, however, quickly pulled out by the Eskimo.

During the next three marches it was estimated that 53 geographical miles were travelled. A cold wind was blowing from the west, and added much to the misery of the party by forming icicles on every hair about the face.

On the night of 28th March a violent storm swept away the dome of their snow-house and buried them under a considerable quantity of snow, from which they extricated themselves with difficulty.

Next day the weather improved, and on the 30th March the clear atmosphere enabled them to discover land some distance to the west, extending parallel to the line of their route. The position at this time was found to be 84° 50′, and longitude 95° 36′. This land gave the impression that it probably consisted of two islands, and was named by Dr. Cook “Bradley Land.” It was seen to extend from about 83° 20′ to about 85° 11′ near to the 102nd meridian. It was buried under snow, and resembled the high lands of Heiberg Island.

Dr. Cook has stated that from latitude 83° 31′ a glimpse was obtained of what was believed to be Crocker Land away to the west. He now states that Bradley Land extends as far south as 83° 20′. If this is correct, Bradley Land must include Crocker Land.

The weather again changed on the 31st March, and hid the land from view. Strong winds made progress rather slow for several days. On 7th April the sun was first observed above the horizon at midnight. The journey had now lasted from the time the sun first appeared above the horizon at midday until it did not set during the twenty-four hours.

On 8th April the position was ascertained to be 86° 36′, longitude 94° 2′. In nine days 106 miles had been covered, in a temperature ranging from 36° to 46° F. below zero. Dr. Cook at this time remarked that in dreams Heaven was hot, and the other place was cold.

On 11th April the latitude was 87° 20′, and the longitude 95° 19′. Ice conditions now improved, and good distances were made. For two days the march was over old ice without pressure-lines or hummocks. The winds, however, were still bitterly cold, and on 13th April Ahwelah nearly collapsed. The position on the 14th was 99 miles from the Pole. Some of the dogs had already been killed to feed the others, but a sufficient number remained to enable the party to make a determined effort to cover the remaining distance to the Pole.

On to the 89th parallel the ice was in large fields and comparatively smooth. The noon observation on 19th April gave the latitude as 29 miles from the Pole, and the longitude 94° 3′. The next march was made under great excitement, and when camp was pitched it was within 14 miles of the goal, in longitude 94° 52′. Shortly after midnight of 21st April the party again set out, and when the pedometer had registered 14½ miles camp was made. The observation here gave latitude 89° 59′ 45″. A distance equal to the 15″ was advanced, the tent was pitched, and a snow-house was built so that the party might stay long enough for two rounds of observations to be made. The temperature was 38.7° below zero.

The North Pole had at last been conquered. The struggle which had been carried on more than three centuries was finally over. It had cost many lives and unparalleled hardships before man’s ambition was satisfied. And what a desolate spot to have aroused the competition of nations! No land was in sight, no life had been seen within a long distance of it, and nothing but endless fields of ice and snow stretched away to the horizon. Yet here was the most interesting geographical point on the surface of the earth; here was the axis on which the world turned.