The Siege and Conquest of the North Pole

On the 5th of June they reached land. Two days later, Lieutenant Parr started on an arduous march to the ship, in order to obtain assistance. Next day one of the invalids, George Porter, died. On the 9th a dog-sledge arrived from the ship, and on the following day a larger party, headed by Captain Nares, arrived. The ship was reached at 1.30 a.m. on the 14th of June. Out of the original party of fifteen men, three only were capable of dragging the sledge, the remaining eleven having to be carried alongside the ship on the relief-sledges.

Commander Markham on his return reported: “I feel it impossible for my pen to depict with accuracy, and yet be not accused of exaggeration, the numerous drawbacks that impeded our progress. One point, however, in my opinion is most definitely settled, and that is, the utter impracticability of reaching the North Pole over the floe in this locality; and in this opinion my able colleague, Lieutenant Parr, entirely concurs. I am convinced that with the very lightest equipped sledges, carrying no boats, and with all the resources of the ship concentrated in the one direction, and also supposing that perfect health might be maintained, the latitude attained by the party I had the honour and pleasure of commanding would not be exceeded by many miles, certainly not by a degree.”

To this Nares added: “In this I most fully concur. Markham’s journey, coupled with the experience gained by Sir Edward Parry in the summer of 1827, and more recently the memorable retreat of Lieutenant Weyprecht and his companions after having abandoned the Tegetthoff off the coast of Franz-Josef Land, proves that a lengthened journey over the Polar pack-ice with a sledge-party equipped with a boat fit for navigable purposes is impracticable at any season of the year.”

It was left for Nansen and Peary to prove that Nares and Markham were wrong.

We will now follow the sledge-party to the west. After parting company with Markham on the 11th of April, Aldrich and Giffard with their two sledges crossed Feilden Peninsula – the watershed of which was estimated to be 500 feet above the sea-level. They reached the shore of James Ross Bay on the 15th. Four hares were shot and traces of ptarmigan seen. These hares were the only game obtained. Crossing the bay, Crozier Island was visited on the 17th. On the 19th, the Parry Peninsula, 2½ miles in breadth, was crossed, and the shore of Clements Markham Inlet reached. On the 22nd, Cape Colan, the west point of the inlet, was arrived at, and a dépôt of provisions left for the return journey.

On the 25th, Giffard and his crew, after completing the other sledge to forty-four days’ provisions, parted company, to return to the Alert.

For the next seven days, when Cape Columbia was reached, Aldrich’s sledge being fully laden, the daily advance was extremely slow, as usual in similar journeys, and the soft snow entailed very severe labour. On the 30th April, Aldrich wrote: “The Sergeant-Major has just shown me a very ugly-looking red patch or blotch just above the ankle; the limb is slightly swollen.” This was a sign of scurvy, which was not suspected for some time afterwards. Cape Aldrich, where a dépôt of provisions was left, was reached on 1st May. Cape Columbia, the most northern point attained, was also reached on 1st May. The latitude was found to be 83° 7′ N. On the 8th of May another dépôt was formed; and on the 10th, Aldrich writes: “The men are nearly all suffering a great deal with their unfortunate legs, which appear to get worse every day. This we all feel to be very disappointing, as it affects the journey, and although stiff limbs were expected, every one thought the stiffness would wear off in time.” Milne Bay was crossed on the 14th, and the camp was pitched in Yelverton Bay on the 15th. On the 18th May, Aldrich decided to return. Provisions were running short, and the condition of his crew was becoming worse. He had then reached longitude 85° 33′ W. On the homeward journey the attack of scurvy gradually became more pronounced, and the fast-increasing weakness of the men rendered the daily distance accomplished so short that the provisions placed in dépôt on the passage out were insufficient to last them, on full allowance, while travelling from one dépôt to another.

On the 5th of June they passed Cape Columbia on their return; and on the 7th the dreaded word “scurvy” was used for the first time. The dépôt at Cape Colan was reached on the 11th. On the 13th, Aldrich writes: “Got on very fairly till eight o’clock, when Good nearly fainted. There appears to be utter inability to get breath, no pain, and no difficulty to speak of in breathing when at rest. The least exertion brings it on.”

On the 20th, when it was becoming evident that they could not reach the ship without assistance, they met a party of three who had been sent to their relief. On the 23rd other two came to their assistance; and on the 25th a party of officers with Captain Nares hurried them to the ship.

The only other sledge-journey of importance was that along the Greenland coast, in charge of Lieutenant Beaumont. Accompanied by Dr. Coppinger and sixteen men dragging two sledges, he started from the Discovery on the 6th of April for Floeberg Beach, intending to make the Alert his base for the exploration. The Alert was reached on the 16th, and after four days’ rest, Beaumont with Rawson, Coppinger, and twenty-one men, dragging four sledges weighted to 218 lb. per man, started for Repulse Harbour, Greenland. Robeson Channel was crossed without much difficulty, but a great mass of hummocks had to be cut through at the entrance to Repulse Harbour. Here the provisions were redistributed on three sledges, a cairn built, and a site selected for the dépôt to be left for the return journey.

They started northward on the 27th April, and as it had been impressed upon Beaumont that it was necessary to keep to the land so as to prevent leaving an impassable barrier in the rear in the event of the ice breaking up, he struggled on along steep snow-slopes where roads had to be cut, rather than take to the comparatively level floes. At Black Horn Cliffs, however, it was found impossible to keep to the land; they therefore took to the ice, but again returned to the land a short distance beyond the cliffs. On the 4th of May a dépôt was formed for the return journey, and Coppinger left on this date. On the 6th of May one of the crew complained of stiffness in the legs, and next day when he was examined by Beaumont the latter suspected scurvy. On the 10th he decided that Lieutenant Rawson, with his party, should take this man back, and on arrival at Repulse Harbour either cross over to the Alert or go on to Polaris Bay.

On the 10th of May, Beaumont ascended Mount Wyatt, 2050 feet, from which he saw that the line of hummocks stretched for 10 or 12 miles in the direction of Mount Hooker, and then turned to the northward, and ran straight for the west end of the distant land. All to the eastward of this boundary was smooth and level, while to the westward lay the Polar pack, with its floes and chains of hummocks.

A dépôt was left at Cape Bryant, and then Beaumont made for Cape Fulford, which is the north extremity of the line of cliffs on the west side of St. George’s Fiord. The road across the mouth of the fiord was very good, and, arrived at Dragon Point, they opened out another wide reach of bays and fiords. Beaumont was anxious to reach Mount Hooker, from which he expected to see not only the islands to the north, but get the best idea of the trend of the mainland; he encountered, however, soft snow which varied from 2 to 4½ feet in depth: they had “literally to climb out of the holes made by each foot in succession.” Why snow-shoes were not used seems beyond comprehension. Beaumont writes: “The shore for which we were making did not seem more than 2 miles off, so I went ahead to see if the travelling was better under the cliffs. I got about a mile and a half ahead of the sledge in three hours, and then gave it up. I was nearly done; so I hailed them to go to lunch, but would rather have missed three meals than gone back all that distance.” The men struggled on, sometimes dragging the sledge on their hands and knees to relieve their aching legs, or hauling her ahead with a long rope and standing pulls.

On the 19th of May, Beaumont writes: “Nobody will ever believe what hard work this becomes on the fourth day; but this may give them some idea of it. When halted for lunch, two of the men crawled for 200 yards on their hands and knees, rather than walk unnecessarily through this awful snow.” This snow was too much for them: on the 22nd May they started on the return journey without having reached Mount Hooker. A record was left in a cairn on the north end of Reef Island. At Dragon Point a chart and another record were left in a cairn, and Beaumont and Alexander Gray set off to ascend the highest mountain in the neighbourhood. The elevation was 3700 feet and the view was magnificent, but Beaumont did not see what he wanted: – “The Mount Hooker Land hid the islands, and the Cape Buttress channel was shut in. Mount Albert I could see was a separate island. Cape Britannia, as far as could be seen, had very high land far back. Stephenson Land was quite hidden behind Mount Hooker Land, which latter towards Cape Buttress extended very far back to the eastward. Cape Buttress overlapped it, but inside and above the cape could be seen either a hummocky floe or a mer de glace; it looked like a floe, but its skyline had a perceptible curve in it – a haze hung over this part. By the look of the land and shore, a passage seemed to connect St. George’s Fiord with St. Andrew’s Bay. St. George’s Fiord could be traced continuing to the south, after making a slight bend to the west. The view inland in that direction stretched away without a break as far as the eye could reach, all much about the same elevation. Mount Punch stood out from most of the other mountains, and Grant’s Land was distinctly visible, the United States’ range being very conspicuous.”

After a short rest, they once more started, making for Cape Fulford. Heavy snowfalls with thick fogs retarded their advance, and on the 28th of May a dépôt was formed with 200 lb. of articles which they could dispense with. With the exception of Beaumont and Gray, all the party were suffering from scurvy, and steadily getting worse. Soon after this, Paul fell down quite powerless, and had to be carried on the sledge; and on the 7th June another man had to be placed beside him. Repulse Harbour was reached on the 10th of June. It was decided to cross over to the Alert, but after travelling about 1 mile over the ice they came to water, and had to return and make their way to Polaris Bay, 40 miles off. Next march Dobing broke down, and Jones felt so bad he did not think he could walk much longer. They toiled painfully through McCormick Pass, and reached Newman Bay. On the 22nd, Craig and Dobing almost dragged themselves along, their breath failing entirely at every 10 yards. On the 23rd it became necessary to carry both Dobing and Craig. The last journey under such terrible conditions may be described in Beaumont’s words: “On the evening of the 24th we started for our last journey with the sledge, as I thought; for finding that Jones and Gray were scarcely able to pull, I had determined to reach the shore at the plain, pitch the tent, and walk over by myself to Polaris Bay to see if there was any one there to help us; if not, come back, and sending Jones and Gray, who could still walk, to the dépôt, remain with the sick and get them on as best I could. But I thank God it did not come to this, for as we were plodding along the now water-sodden floe towards the shore, I saw what turned out to be a dog-sledge and three men, and soon after had the pleasure of shaking hands with Lieutenant Rawson and Dr. Coppinger. Words cannot express the pleasure, relief, and gratitude we all felt at this timely meeting.”

Newman Bay dépôt was reached next day. Hans, who arrived with Rawson and Coppinger, made good use of his skill as a driver. Both Paul and Jenkins were now in a critical condition, so it was decided on the 28th that Dr. Coppinger and Hans, with the two men on the eight-man sledge drawn by the dogs, should start for the Polaris Bay dépôt. Paul, however, gradually grew weaker, and died on the afternoon of the 29th.

It will be convenient here to go back to Rawson’s journey to Polaris Bay after leaving Beaumont. Owing to two more of his crew breaking down, leaving only himself and one man, E. Rayner, strong enough to drag the sledge, they did not succeed in reaching Polaris Bay till the 3rd of June, after a most arduous journey on reduced rations, and during several days of which Rawson was himself so badly affected with snow-blindness that he had to pull the sledge while blindfold. James Hand expired a few hours after their arrival at Polaris Bay.

On the 8th August, Beaumont with his companions started on their perilous journey across Hall’s Basin to Discovery Bay. After two hours on the ice, they came to a large space of water 3 miles broad, and launched their boat, which had previously been taken across from the Discovery. They had repeatedly to draw the boat on the ice, haul it on their sledge till water was again met, and then launch. While crossing they found themselves drifting south, and were in the greatest danger of being swept into Kennedy Channel; fortunately, a wind from the south-east set in, and they eventually reached land between Cape Lieber and Cape Baird on the 12th, and arrived at Discovery Bay on 14th August.

After the return of the northern and western sledge-parties so completely broken down, Captain Nares determined to give up all further exploration, and to proceed to the southward with both ships as soon as the ice should break up and release them. On the 31st July the Alert succeeded in escaping from the ice at Floeberg Beach, and after meeting many difficulties reached Discovery Bay on 12th August.

Nares writes: “On the 16th, the weather still remaining distressingly fine and calm, an excursion was made to the coal-beds near Cape Murchison. This deposit of coal, or, more correctly, lignite, is exposed in a ravine near Watercourse Bay, for a distance of over 200 yards. At its greatest exposure the thickness of the seam is 25 feet, but we had no means of ascertaining how much deeper it descended below the level of the stream. Above the coal are beds of shale and sandstones. The coal was pronounced after trial by our engineers to be equal to the best Welsh. The seam where exposed is at an elevation of about 200 feet above the sea-level, and at a distance of about a mile from the shore of Watercourse Bay, in Robeson Channel. Unfortunately, very little shelter is obtainable for a large vessel among the small floebergs stranded in this indentation. The distance between the coal-seam and Discovery Bay is about 4 miles, and the track leads over the brow of a hill about 800 feet high.

“A short distance above the quarry, in a narrow part of the ravine where a large quantity of snow, collected in a shaded part, remains unmelted during the summer, the mountain torrent has melted away a watercourse for itself through the snow-bank. In winter this ice grotto, with a trifling expense of labour, could be readily formed into a convenient Arctic residence.”

On the 18th August, Captain Stephenson deposited an account of their proceedings in a cairn which had been constructed out of the empty preserved meat-tins, refilled with gravel. A post-office box was placed in the centre of the pile.

On the 20th August the ice opened sufficiently to allow the two ships to leave for the south. At Cape Isabella they found a package of letters and newspapers left there by Sir Allen Young a few weeks previously.

Nares writes: “After our long sojourn within the Polar ice it was a strange transition to feel the ship rise and fall once more on the ‘north water’ of Baffin’s Bay, and to look astern and see Cape Isabella, one of the massive portals of Smith Sound, fading away in an obscurity of snow and midnight darkness; whilst an ice-blink stretching across the northern horizon reminded us forcibly of the perils, dangers, and anxieties that we had contended against for so many months.

“In comparing the voyage of the Polaris and that of the Alert and Discovery, it is evident that the navigation of the ice which is to be met with every year in Kane Sea is entirely dependent on the westerly winds. Both in 1875 and 1876 we met navigable water off Cape Victoria in latitude 79° 12′ with only a narrow pack 15 miles in breadth between it and Grinnell Land, which a westerly wind of a few hours’ duration would certainly have driven to the eastward. The same wind would have opened a channel along the shore, and any vessel waiting her opportunity at Payer Harbour could under those circumstances have passed up the channel with as little difficulty as the Polaris experienced in 1871.

“The quantity of one season’s ice met with in the bays on the south-east coast of Grinnell Land in 1876 proves that on the final setting in of the frost, after we passed north in 1875, the pack had been driven from the shore, leaving a navigable channel along the land. Nevertheless, I do not recommend future navigators who wish to obtain a high northern latitude by this route to wait for such a favourable occurrence. Certainly no one could have made a passage through the ice in 1876 before the 10th September by doing so. At that date the season had advanced so far that the attainment of sheltered winter-quarters would have been extremely problematical.”

The two ships arrived at Portsmouth Harbour on the 2nd November.

This expedition, sent out regardless of expense, achieved very much less than had been anticipated. The chief cause of failure was the outbreak of scurvy, which completely paralysed the undertaking. The real cause of the outbreak was never discovered, but it was probably due to the want of fresh meat. The methods adopted to reach a high latitude were practically identical with those of Parry used half a century before. After all their experience, both Markham and Nares emphatically declared their conviction that it was impossible under any circumstances for a sledge-party, even without boats, and with all possible resources, to reach 1 degree beyond that reached by the expedition. It was an American naval officer, Commander Peary, who proved in 1906 that a point nearly 4 degrees farther north could be attained over the same sea; and in 1909, starting from the coast a little to the west of his previous route, he succeeded in reaching the Pole itself.

CHAPTER VIII

THE VOYAGE OF THE JEANNETTE (1879−81)

The Jeannette was the new name given to Sir Allen Young’s Pandora after it was purchased by James Gordon Bennett, who had decided to equip a North Polar expedition.

The commander of the expedition, Lieutenant George W. De Long, had taken an active and distinguished part in the search for the Polaris. In making an attempt to reach the Pole, he favoured the route by Behring Strait, and he was supported by Bennett himself, who had been influenced by the views of Dr. Petermann, the German geographer. One of the chief reasons for choosing the Behring Strait route was the supposed existence of a Japan current, which, it was hoped, would open a way towards the Pole. Another reason was the view held as to the extent of Wrangel Land. Petermann actually believed that it extended right across the Pole and was the continuation of Greenland. It was afterwards proved to be only a small island.

Lieutenant Chipp, the second in command, acted with De Long in the search for the Polaris. George W. Melville, chief engineer, had been a comrade of De Long’s in the navy. The ice-pilot was William Dunbar, who had been master of whale-ships in and north of Behring Strait. Nindemann, the ice-quartermaster, was one of the crew of the Polaris who underwent the terrible winter-drift on the ice-floe.

The Jeannette left San Francisco on the 8th July 1879. A schooner, laden with 100 tons coal and such provisions as the Jeannette could not conveniently carry, followed on the same date.

Ounalaska Island was reached on the 2nd August, and left on the 6th. Here, coal, dog-food, and furs were obtained. De Long mentions that there was not a white woman in the place. The native women evidently do not expect a long courtship. A number of men had been brought from St. Paul’s Island on the Thursday; they made their selections on the Friday and Saturday, and were married on the Sunday.

St. Michael’s was reached on 12th August, but the schooner did not arrive until the 18th. Here, forty dogs, five sledges, snow-shoes, boots, and a large quantity of skin-garments were obtained. Two natives, named Alexey and Aneguin, were hired as interpreters and dog-drivers. The total number of persons on board the Jeannette was now thirty-three.

De Long had been instructed to make inquiries concerning Professor Nordenskjöld, who had nearly reached Behring Strait in making his famous north-east passage during the previous year. For this purpose he left St. Michael’s on 21st August, and made for St. Lawrence Bay, Siberia, which he reached on the 25th, after a stormy passage. Here he ascertained that a ship which had been frozen in during the previous winter in Koliutchin Bay, had left St. Lawrence Bay some time before. De Long believed that this must have been Nordenskjöld’s ship, but to make certain he decided to make inquiries near where the Professor wintered. He visited Koliutchin Bay, and found satisfactory proof that Nordenskjöld had wintered there, and had left in safety. It was now the 31st August, and De Long was free to continue his voyage to the north, but unfortunately the navigation season was drawing to a close. The lateness of the date when the Jeannette left San Francisco, her want of speed, and the delay caused by her search for Nordenskjöld placed De Long at a great disadvantage.

Pack-ice was met as early as the 2nd September. Herald Island was sighted on the 4th, and on the same date land was seen away to the south-west.

On the 6th September the Jeannette was beset, within a week after leaving the Siberian coast, and was never afterwards released. On the 9th September the position by observation was found to be 71° 35′ N., 175° 5′ 48″ W.

On the 13th September, De Long sent four men with a sledge to make an attempt to reach Herald Island. They returned next day and reported that they had been forced to return when about 5 miles from the island. Broad leads and rotten ice had been met, and it was evidently impossible to sledge to the island.

By this time it was observed that the Jeannette was being slowly drifted in the ice towards the north-west. On the 15th September the position was 71° 46′ N., 175° 36′ W., or about 15 miles to the north-west of the position on the 9th. All hope of getting out of the ice before next summer was now almost given up, and the best that could be expected was that the Jeannette might drift to Wrangel Land before spring. However, after drifting some distance to the north-west, the Jeannette was drifted to the east, and then to the south-west, thus forming a triangle, and after a month’s drift she reached a point near where she began.

On the 21st October the thermometer fell to zero for the first time. Preparations were made for the winter, and De Long took great precautions to see that everything possible was done to insure the health of the party. Special attention was paid to the proper ventilation of the ship and the avoidance of damp. The surgeon, Dr. Ambler, frequently tested the amount of carbonic acid gas in the air; and a thorough examination of the whole party was made monthly.

During October the land to the south-west of Herald Island was frequently seen, and De Long came to the conclusion that it was Wrangel Land, and must either be an island or an archipelago.

Before the sun disappeared on the 16th November a considerable number of seals, several bears, and some walruses had been shot, and served as an important addition to the stock of food for both men and dogs.

During November ice pressures became severe. On the 24th, the floe in which the Jeannette had been fixed was split, and the ship was once more afloat, but in a most dangerous position. On the 25th, it was driven by the ice about a mile from its previous position, until it held fast in some young ice.