Ruins of Ancient Cities (Vol. 1 of 2)

After this defeat, the inhabitants lost all hope of defending themselves; so that all the Achaians who had retired into Corinth, and most of the citizens, quitted it the following night, to save themselves how they could. The consul having entered the city, abandoned it to be plundered by the soldiers. All the men who were left in it were put to the sword, and the women and children sold; and after the statues, paintings, and richest moveables were removed, in order to their being carried to Rome, the houses were set on fire, and the whole city continued in flames for several days. From that time the Corinthian brass became more valuable than ever, though it had been in reputation long before. It is pretended that the gold, silver, and brass, which were melted, and ran together in this conflagration, formed a new and precious metal. The walls were afterwards desolated, and razed to their very foundations. All this was executed by order of the Senate, to punish the insolence of the Corinthians, who had violated the law of nations, in their treatment of the ambassadors sent to them by Rome.

The booty taken at Corinth was sold, and considerable sums raised from it. Amongst the paintings there was a piece drawn by the most celebrated hand in Greece, representing Bacchus, the beauty of which was not known to the Romans, who were at that time entirely ignorant of the polite arts. Polybius, who was then in the country, had the mortification to see the painting serve the soldiers for a table to play at dice upon. It was afterwards sold to Attalus for £3625 sterling. Pliny mentions another picture by the same painter, which the same Attalus purchased for 110 talents. The consul, surprised that the price of the painting in question should rise so high, interposed his authority, and retained it contrary to public faith, and notwithstanding the complaints of Attalus, because he imagined there was some hidden virtue in the prize, unknown to him. He did not act in that manner for his private interest, nor with the view of appropriating it to himself, as he sent it to Rome, to be applied in adorning the city. When it arrived at Rome, it was set up in the temple of Ceres, whither the judges went to see it out of curiosity, as a masterpiece of art; and it remained there till it was burned with that temple.

Mummius was a great warrior, and an excellent man; but he had neither learning, knowledge of arts, nor taste for painting or sculpture. He ordered particular persons to take care of transporting many of the paintings and statues of the most excellent masters to Rome. Never had loss been so irreparable, as that of such a deposite, consisting of the masterpieces of those rare artists, who contributed almost as much as the great captains, to the rendering of their age glorious to posterity. Mummius, however, in recommending the care of that precious collection to those to whom he confided them, threatened them very seriously, that if the statues, paintings, and other things with which he charged them, should be either lost or destroyed by the way, he would oblige them to find others at their own cost199; – a saying deservedly ridiculed by all persons of sense, as a most egregious solecism in taste and delicacy200.

It is amusing to observe the difference between Mummius and Scipio; – the one the conqueror of Corinth, the other of Carthage; both in the same year201. Scipio, to the courage and virtue of ancient heroes, joined a profound knowledge of the sciences, with all the genius and ornaments of wit. His patronage was courted by every one who made any figure in learning. Panætius, whom Tully calls the prince of the Stoics, and Polybius the historian, were his bosom friends, the assisters of his studies at home, and the constant companions of his expeditions abroad. To which may be added, that he passed the more agreeable hours of his life in the conversation of Terence, and is even thought to have taken part in the composition of his comedies.

The period in which the Isthmian games were to be celebrated being at hand, the expectation of what was to be transacted drew thither an incredible multitude of people, and persons of the highest rank. The conditions of peace, which were not yet entirely made public, were the topic of all conversations, and various constructions were put upon them; but very few could be persuaded that the Romans would evacuate all the cities they had taken. All Greece was in this uncertainty, when the multitude being assembled in the stadium to see the games, a herald comes forward, and publishes with a loud voice: – "The senate and people of Rome, and Titus Quintius the general, having overcome Philip and the Macedonians, ease and deliver from all garrisons and taxes and imposts, the Corinthians, the Locrians, the Phocians, the Eubœans, the Phthiot Achaians, the Magnesians, the Thessalians, and the Perrhœbians; declare them free, and ordain that they shall be governed by their respective laws and usages."

At these words all the spectators were filled with excessive joy. They gazed upon and questioned one another with astonishment, and could not believe either eyes or ears; so like a dream was what they saw and heard. But being at last assured of their happiness, they abandoned themselves again to the highest transports of joy, and broke out into such loud acclamations, that the sea resounded them to a distance; and some ravens, which happened to fly that instant over the assembly, fell down into the stadium; so true it is, that of all the blessings of this life, none are so dear as that of liberty!

Corinth, nevertheless, remained after this in a ruined and desolate state many years. At length, Cæsar, after he had subdued Africa, and while his fleet lay at anchor at Utica, gave order for rebuilding Carthage; and soon after his return to Italy, he likewise caused Corinth to be rebuilt. Strabo and Plutarch agree in ascribing the rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth to Julius Cæsar; and Plutarch remarks this singular circumstance with regard to these cities, viz. – that as they were taken and destroyed in the same year, they were rebuilt and repeopled at the same time.

Under the eastern emperors, Corinth was the see of an archbishop, subject to the patriarch of Constantinople. Roger, king of Naples, obtained possession of it under the empire of Emanuel. It had, afterwards, its own sovereign, who ceded it to the Venetians; from whom it was taken by Mahomet II., A. D. 1458. The Venetians retook it in 1687, and held it till the year 1715, when they lost it to the Turks, in whose possession it remained till, a few years since, Greece was erected into an independent state. The grand army of the Turks202 (in 1715) under the prime vizier, to open themselves a way into the heart of the Morea, attacked Corinth, upon which they made several attacks. The garrison being weakened, and the governor, seeing it was impossible to hold out against a force so superior to their own, beat a parley; but while they were treating about the articles, one of the magazines in the Turkish camp, wherein they had 600 barrels of powder, blew up by accident, whereby between 600 and 700 men were killed; which so enraged the infidels, that they would not grant any capitulation, but stormed the place with so much fury that they took it, and put most of the garrison, with the governor, Signior Minotti, to the sword. The rest they made prisoners of war. This subject formed the foundation of Lord Byron's poem of the Siege of Corinth.

The natural consequences of an extensive commerce were wealth and luxury. Fostered in this manner, the city rose in magnificence and grandeur; and the elegant and magnificent temples, palaces, theatres, and other buildings, adorned with statues, columns, capitals, and bases, not only rendered it the pride of its inhabitants and the admiration of strangers, but gave rise to that order of architecture which still bears its name.

Corinth has preserved but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens. The chief remains are at the southern corner of the town, and above the bazaar; eleven columns, supporting their architraves, of the Doric order, fluted, and wanting in height near half the common proportion to the diameter. Within them, to the western end, is one taller, though entire, which, it is likely, contributed to sustain the roof. They are of stone. This ruin is probably of great antiquity, and a portion of a fabric, erected mostly before the Greek city was destroyed, but before the Doric order had attained to maturity.

Mr. Dodwell, nevertheless, observed no remains of the order of architecture which is said to have been invented at Corinth, nor did he perceive in any part of the isthmus the acanthus plant, which forms the principal distinctive character of the Corinthian capital.

Corinth*, says Mr. Turner, contains, within its walls, remains of antiquity, but some small masses of ruined walls and seven columns, with part of the frieze of a temple, of which some columns were pulled down to make room for a Turkish house to which it joins.

As there is nothing approaching to an intelligible building of antiquity, we may exclaim with the poet —

Where is thy grandeur, Corinth! shrunk from sight,Thy ancient treasures, and thy ramparts' height,Thy god-like fanes and palaces! Oh where,Thy mighty myriads and majestic fair!Relentless war has poured around thy wall,And hardly spared the traces of thy fall.

There are several shapeless and uninteresting masses of Roman remains composed of bricks, one of which seems to have been a bath, resembling, in some respects, that of Dioclesian at Rome, but little more than the lower walls and foundations are remaining. The only Grecian ruin which, at present, remains at Corinth, is that of a Doric temple. When Du Loir travelled there (1654), there were twelve columns of this temple standing. In the time of Chandler there were also eleven; but now there are only seven. To what god this temple was dedicated is unknown. The columns are each composed of one black calcareous stone, which being of a porous quality, were anciently covered with stucco of great hardness and durability. From its massive and inelegant proportions, Mr. Dodwell is disposed to believe, that this ruin is the most ancient remaining in Greece.

In the narrowest part of the isthmus, about three miles from Corinth, and therefore probably in the place where the games were celebrated, are seen the spacious remains of a theatre and stadium; and less than a mile from Corinth, in the same direction, the circuit and arena are still visible.

The Acropolis, however, is one of the finest objects in Greece, and before the introduction of artillery, it was deemed almost impregnable, and had never been taken except by treachery or surprise. In the time of Aratus it was defended only by four hundred soldiers, fifty dogs, and fifty keepers. It shoots up majestically from the plain to a considerable height, and forms a conspicuous object at a great distance; as it is clearly seen from Athens, from which it is not less than forty-four miles in a direct line. From its summit is a glorious prospect. Strabo thus describes it: – "From the summit of the Acropolis, Parnassus and Helicon are seen covered with snow. Towards the west is the gulf of Krissa, bordered by Phocis, Bœotia, Megaris, Corinthia, and Sicyonia. Beyond are the Oneian mountains, extending to Bœotia and Mount Cithæron." The entire view forms, on the whole, a panorama of the most captivating features, and of the greatest dimensions, comprehending six of the most celebrated states of Greece; – Achaia, Locris, Phocis, Bœotia, Attica, and Argolis203.

The Corinthian order having been invented at Corinth, we cannot refuse ourselves the satisfaction of quoting a passage from Dr. Brewster's treatise on Civil Architecture: – "The artists of Græcia Proper, perceiving that in the Ionic order the severity of the Doric had been departed from, by one happy effort invented a third, which much surpassed the Ionic in delicacy of proportion and richness of decorations. This was named the Corinthian order. The merit of this invention is ascribed to Callimachus of Athens, who is said to have had the idea suggested to him by observing acanthus leaves growing round a basket, which had been placed with some favourite trinkets upon the grave of a young lady; the stalks which rose among the leaves having been formed into slender volutes by a square tile which covered the basket. It is possible that a circumstance of this nature may have caught the fancy of a sculptor who was contemporary with Phidias; and who was, doubtless, in that age of competition, alive to every thing which promised distinction in his profession. But in the warmth of our devotion for the inspiration of Greek genius, we must not overlook the facts, that, in the pillars of several temples in Upper Egypt, whose shafts represent bundles of reeds or lotus, bound together in several places by fillets, the capitals are formed by several rows of delicate leaves. In the splendid ruins of Vellore in Hindostan, the capitals are, also, composed of similar ornaments; and it is well known, that the Persians, at their great festivals, were in the habit of decorating with flowers the tops of their pillars which formed the public apartments. It is, therefore, not improbable, that these circumstances, after so much intercourse with other countries, might have suggested ideas to Callimachus, which enabled him to surpass the capital of Ionia204."

At Corinth, too, the art of portrait painting is said to have been first practised.

"Blest be the pencil! whose consoling power,Soothing soft Friendship in her pensive hour,Dispels the cloud, with melancholy fraught,That absence throws upon her tender thought.Blest be the pencil! whose enchantment givesTo wounded Love the food on which he lives.Rich in this gift, though cruel ocean bearThe youth to exile from his faithful fair,He in fond dreams hangs o'er her glowing cheek,Still owns her present, and still hears her speak.Oh! Love, it was thy glory to impartIts infant being to this sweetest art!Inspired by thee, the soft Corinthian maid,Her graceful lover's sleeping form portray'd;Her boding heart his near departure knew,Yet long'd to keep his image in her view.Pleased she beheld the steady shadow fall,By the clear lamp upon the even wall.The line she traced, with fond precision true,And, drawing, doted on the form she drew:Nor, as she glow'd with no forbidden fire,Conceal'd the simple picture from her sire.His kindred fancy, still to nature just,Copied her line, and form'd the mimic bust.Thus from thy inspiration, Love, we traceThe modell'd image, and the pencill'd face!"205

NO. XXX. CTESIPHON

The Parthian monarchs delighted in the pastoral life of their Scythian ancestors; and the royal camp was frequently pitched in the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance of only three miles from Seleucia. It was, then, no other than a village. By the influx of innumerable attendants on luxury and despotism, who resorted to the court, this village insensibly swelled into a large city; and there the Parthian kings, acting by Seleucia as the Greeks, who built that place, had done by Babylon, built a town, in order to dispeople and impoverish Seleucia. Many of the materials, however, were taken from Babylon itself; so that from the time the anathema was pronounced against that city, "it seems," says Rollin, "as if those very persons, that ought to have protected her, were become her enemies; as if they had all thought it their duty to reduce her to a state of solitude, by indirect means, though without using any violence; that it might the more manifestly appear to be the hand of God, rather than the hand of man, that brought about her destruction."

This city was for some time assailed by Julian206, who fixed his camp near the ruins of Seleucia, and secured himself by a ditch and rampart, against the sallies and enterprising garrison of Coche. In this fruitful and pleasant country the Romans were supplied with water and forage; and several forts, which might have embarrassed the motions of the army, submitted, after some resistance, to the efforts of their valour. The fleet passed from the Euphrates in an artificial diversion of the river, which forms a copious and navigable stream into the Tigris, at a small distance below the great city. Had they followed this royal canal, which bore the name of Nahar-Malcha207, the immediate situation of Coche would have separated the fleet and army of Julian; and the vast attempt of steering against the current of the Tigris, and forcing their way through the midst of a hostile capital, must have been attended with the total destruction of the Roman army. As Julian had minutely studied the operations of Trajan in the same country, he soon recollected that his warlike predecessor had dug a new and navigable canal, which conveyed the waters into the Tigris, at some distance above the river. From the information of the peasants, Julian ascertained the vestiges of this ancient work, which were almost obliterated by design or accident. He, therefore, prepared a deep channel for the reception of the Euphrates: the flood of waters rushed into this new bed; and the Roman fleet steered their triumphant course into the Tigris. He soon after passed, with his whole army, over the river: sending up a military shout, the Romans advanced in measured steps, to the animating notes of military music; launched their javelins, and rushed forwards with drawn swords, to deprive the barbarians, by a closer onset, of the advantage of their missile weapons. The action lasted twelve hours: the enemy at last gave way. They were pursued to the gates of Ctesiphon, and the conquerors, says the historian from whom we have borrowed this account, might have entered the dismayed city, had not their general desired them to desist from the attempt; since, if it did not prove successful, it must prove fatal. The spoil was ample: large quantities of gold and silver, splendid arms and trappings, and beds, and tables of massy silver. The victor distributed, as the reward of valour, some honourable gifts civic and mural, and naval crowns: and then considered what new measures to pursue: for, as we have already stated, his troops had not ventured to attempt entering the city. He called a council of war; but seeing that the town was strongly defended by the river, lofty walls208, and impassable morasses, he came to the determination of not besieging it; holding it a fruitless and pernicious undertaking. This occurred A. D. 363.

In this city Chosroes, king of Persia, built a palace; supposed to have been once the most magnificent structure in the East.

In process of time Seleucia and Ctesiphon became united, and identified under the name of Al Modain, or the two cities. This union is attributed to the judgment of Adashir Babigan (the father of the Sassanian line). It afterwards continued a favourite capital with most of his dynasty, till the race perished in the person of Yezdijerd; and Al Modain was rendered a heap of ruins, by the fanatic Arabs, in the beginning of the seventh century.

At that period (A. D. 637), those walls, which had resisted the battering rams of the Romans, yielded to the darts of the Saracens. Said, the lieutenant of Omar, passed the Tigris without opposition; the capital was taken by assault; and the disorderly resistance of the people gave a keener edge to the sabre of the Moslems, who shouted in religious transport, "This is the white palace of Chosroes: this is the province of the apostle of God."

"The spoils," says Abulfeda, "surpassed the estimate of fancy, or numbers;" and Elmacin defines the untold and almost infinite mass by the fabulous computation of three thousands of thousands of thousands of pieces of gold209.

One of the apartments of the palace was decorated with a carpet of silk, 60 cubits in length, and as many in breadth; a paradise, or garden, was depicted on the ground; the flowers, fruits, and shrubs, were imitated by the figures of the gold embroidery, and the colours of the precious stones; and the ample square was encircled by a verdant and variegated border. The conqueror (Omar) divided the prize among his brethren of Medina. The picture was destroyed; but such was the value of the material, that the share of Ali was sold for 20,000 drachms. The sack was followed by the desertion and gradual decay of the city. In little more than a century after this it was finally supplanted by Bagdad under the Caliph Almanzor.

"The imperial legions," says Porter, "of Rome and Constantinople, with many a barbaric phalanx besides, made successive dilapidation on the walls of Seleucia and Ctesiphon; but it was reserved for Omar and his military fanatics to complete the final overthrow. That victorious caliph founded the city of Kufa on the western shore of the Euphrates; whilst the defeat, which the Persians sustained from one of his best generals in the battle of Cadesia, led to the storming of Al-Maidan, and an indiscriminate massacre of all its Guebre inhabitants. In after times the caliph Almanzor, taking a dislike to Kufa, removed the seat of his government to Bagdad; the materials for the erection of which he brought from the battered walls of the Greek and Parthian city; so as Babylon was ravaged and carried away for the building of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, in the same manner did they moulder into ruin before the rising foundations of Bagdad." Little more remains of Seleucia but the ground on which it stood; showing, by its unequal surface, the low moundy traces of its former inhabitants. Small as these vestiges may seem, they are daily wasting away, and soon nothing would be left to mark the site of Seleucia, were it not for the apparently imperishable canal of Nebuchadnezzar, the Nahar Malcha, whose capacious bosom, noble in ruins, open to the Tigris, north of where the city stood."

What remains of the palace of Chosroes is thus described by the same hand. "Having passed the Diala, a river which flows into the Tigris, the lofty palace of Chosroes, at Modain, upon the site of the ancient Ctesiphon, became visible to us; looking exceedingly large through the refracting atmosphere of the southern horizon, above the even line of which it towered as the most conspicuous object any where to be seen around us. It looked from hence much larger than Westminster Abbey, when seen from a similar distance; and in its general outline it resembled that building very much, excepting only in its having no towers. The great cathedral of the Crusaders, still standing on the ancient Orthosia, on the coast of Syria, is a perfect model of it in general appearance; as that building is seen when approaching from the southward, although there is no one feature of resemblance between those edifices in detail."

On the northern bank of the Diala, Mr. Buckingham saw nothing but some grass huts, inhabited by a few families, who earned their living by transporting travellers across the river; and to the westward, near the Tigris, a few scattered tents of Arab shepherds. On the south bank a few date-trees were seen; but, besides these, no other signs of fertility or cultivation appeared.

When Mr. Buckingham reached the mounds of Ctesiphon, he found them to be of a moderate height, of a light colour, and strewed over with fragments of those invariable remarks of former population, broken pottery. The outer surface of the mounds made them appear as mere heaps of earth, long exposed to the atmosphere; but he was assured by several well acquainted with the true features of the place, that on digging into the mounds, a masonry of unburnt bricks was found, with layers of reed between them, as in the ruins at Akkerhoof and the mounds of Meklooba at Babylon. The extent of the semicircle formed by these heaps, appears to be nearly two miles. The area of the city, however, had but few mounds throughout its whole extent, and those were small and isolated; the space was chiefly covered with thick heath, sending forth, as in the days of Xenophon, a highly aromatic odour, which formed a cover for partridges, hares, and gazelles, of each of which the traveller saw considerable numbers.

After traversing a space within the walls, strewed with fragments of burnt bricks and pottery, he came to the tomb of Selman Pauk. "This Selman Pauk210," says Mr. Buckingham, "was a Persian barber, who, from the fire-worship of his ancestors, became a convert to Islam, under the persuasive eloquence of the great prophet of Modain himself; and, after a life of fidelity to the cause he had embraced, was buried here in his native city of Modain. The memory of this beloved companion of the great head of their faith is held in great respect by all the Mahometans of the country; for, besides the annual feast of the barbers of Bagdad, who in the month of April visit his tomb as that of a patron saint, there are others who come to it on pilgrimage at all seasons of the year."