History of Human Society

The Political Outlook. – In our earlier history the struggle for liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy. To-day the struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical. In theory ours is a self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true. We have the power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not practising it as we might. There is a real danger that the people will fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.

For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government, but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the political welfare of the country. It frequently occurs that men are sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters. Other elective offices meet the same fate. Certainly, more interest must be taken in selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will barter away their liberties by indifference. Officials should be brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit the office for personal gain.

The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of officers necessary. The people are demanding the right to do more things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation. It will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon the government. This may call for the reorganization of the machinery of government on the basis of efficiency. At least it must be shown to the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation. It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our democratic idealism may be put into practice. Laboratory methods in self-government are a prime necessity.

The Equalization of Opportunity. – Popular education is the greatest democratic factor in existence. It is the one great institution which recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody. Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the accepted meaning of the term. There is a false idea of equality which asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself to be so. True equality means justice to all. It does not guarantee that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing shall obtain. It seeks to harmonize individual development with social development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve according to his capacity and industry. "The right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to pursue does not insure success.

The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of all classes. In its extreme processes it has made the weak more helpless. What is needed is the cultivation of individual responsibility. Society is so great, so well organized, and does so much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his responsibility to it. Society is composed of individuals, and its quality will be determined by the character and quality of the individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of all. A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would temper our altruism to more effective service. The world is full of voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for funds. They should re-examine their motives and processes and carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing. Is the institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a working power and a margin of profit in actual service?

The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress. – The effect of scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to elsewhere. It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the attitude of the mind toward life. The laboratory method continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the scientist believes. He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded observation. It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the imagination. But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking. The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all religion. "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of scientific thought.

The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand, discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his normal social relations. Both of these studies have co-operated with biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been attained through long ages of development. Even science, philosophy, and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful evolution. This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge. It has helped men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the light of new truth and experience. This has led the church to a broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to service. It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an institution of dogmatic belief. The religious traditionalists yield slowly to the new religious liberalism. But the influence of scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment which it has been preaching these many centuries.

The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress. – The material comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure the highest spiritual activity. The nations that have achieved have been forced into activity by distressing conditions. In following the history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed least in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great advancement. It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.

Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the use of the wealth is determined. If it leads to luxurious living, immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization. If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to progress. Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced social attitude.

The Balance of Social Forces. – There are two sources of the origin of social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward the individual. These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical in many instances, for both individual and society must survive. But in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be the good of the other. The perfect balancing of the two forces would make a perfect society. The modern social problem is to determine how much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall be undertaken by the group.

In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves through group action. The result has been a multiplication of laws, many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal, improvements. All of these have been of advantage to the people in common, but have greatly increased taxation until it is felt to be a burden. Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses would not have been seriously felt. But it seems certain that a halt in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social stock-taking ensues. At any rate, people will demand that useless expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment. A balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.

Restlessness Versus Happiness. – Happiness is an active principle arising from the satisfaction of individual desires. It does not consist in the possession of an abundance of material things. It may consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them. Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of achievement are the essential factors in true happiness. Realizing how wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it. Indeed, the attitude of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher states of life. It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so much restlessness and so little real happiness. Only the utilization of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and society will insure continuous progress.

The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision of real progress. Great as are the possible blessings of material progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace. Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure of the spirit. Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must be borne?

Summary of Progress. – If one were to review the previous pages from the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor. Its freedom of action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every material and social product of civilization. Its evolution through action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of social order. Has man individual traits, physical and mental, sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social order? It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action. Future progress will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover, an elevation of human conduct. Truly, "without vision the people perish."

SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?

2. What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to avoid strikes?

3. How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and what shall be left to private initiative?

4. How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?

5. To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?

6. Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely expended for education?

7. Public measures for the promotion of health.

8. What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people perish"?

9. Equalization of opportunity.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abbott, Frank Frost: History and Description of Roman Political Institutions.

Adams, George Burton: Civilization During the Middle Ages.

Amicis, Edmondo de: Spain and the Spaniards.

Aristotle's Politics: Translation by Welldon.

Arnold, Matthew: Civilization in the United States.

Bakewell, Chas. M.: Source Book of Ancient Philosophy.

Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin, J. L.: Outlines of Sociology.

Blummer, Hugo: Home Life of the Ancient Greeks.

Boak, A. E. R.: Roman History.

Boas, Franz: The Mind of Primitive Man.

Botsford, George Willis: Ancient History for Beginners. Hellenic History. The Story of Rome.

Bowman, Isaiah: The New World.

Breasted, J. H.: Ancient Times: A History of the Early World.

Brinton, Daniel G.: The American Races.

Bryce, James: The American Commonwealth. The Holy Roman Empire. The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward Nations of the World. Modern Democracies.

Buckle, Henry Thomas: History of Civilization in England.

Burckhart, Jacob: Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy.

Burt, B. C.: A Brief History of Greek Philosophy.

Bury, J. B.: The Idea of Progress.

Carlyle, Thomas: History of the French Revolution.

Carpenter, Edward: Civilization, Its Causes and Cure.

Carter, Howard, and Mace, A. C.: The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen.

Carver, Thos. N.: Sociology and Social Progress.

Chapin, F. Stuart: Introduction to Social Evolution.

Cheney, Edward P.: An Introduction to the Industrial and Social History of England.

Church, R. W.: The Beginnings of the Middle Ages.

Commons, John R.: Industrial Democracy. Trade Unionism and Labor Problems.

Conklin, Grant: The Direction of Human Evolution.

Cooley, Charles H.: Social Organization.

Coppee, Henry: History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs.

Cox, G. W.: The Crusades.

Croiset, Maurice: Hellenic Civilization. (Translated by Paul B. Thomas.)

Deniker, J.: The Races of Men.

Dewey, John: Human Nature and Conduct.

Draper, John W.: History of the Intellectual Development of Europe.

Duncan, Robert K.: The Chemistry of Commerce.

The New Knowledge.

Duruy, Victor: History of France. History of the Middle Ages. History of Rome.

Edman, Erwin: Human Traits.

Elliot, G. F. Scott: Prehistoric Man and His Story.

Ely, Richard T.: Evolution of Industrial Society.

Emerton, Ephraim: Introduction to the Middle Ages.

Mediaeval Europe.

Fisher, George P.: History of the Christian Church.

Fowler, Ward: The City State of the Greeks and Romans.

Gardiner, Samuel R.: The Puritan Revolution.

Gibbon, Edward: Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

Goldenweiser, Alexander A.: Early Civilization.

Gordon, Childe: The Dawn of European Civilization.

Green, John Richard: A Short History of the English People.

Green, William Chase: The Achievement of Greece.

Guizot, F.: History of Civilization.

Hadley, James: Introduction to Roman Law.

Hayes, Carlton J. H.: A Brief History of the Great War. A Political and Social History of Modern Europe.

Henderson, Ernest F.: History of Germany in the Middle Ages.

Hobson, J. A.: The Problems of the New World.

Hodgkin, Thomas: Italy and Her Invaders.

Holm, Adolph: History of Greece.

Hudson, J. W.: The College and New America.

Ihne, W. H.: Early Rome.

Inge, W. R.: The Idea of Progress.

Irving, Washington: The Conquest of Granada.

James, E. O.: An Introduction to Anthropology.

Kelsey, Carl: The Physical Basis of Society.

Keynes, J. M.: The Economic Consequences of the Peace.

King, L. W.: A History of Babylon. A History of Sumer and Akkad.

Kirkup, Thomas: The History of Socialism.

Kitchen, G. W.: History of France.

Kroeber, A. L.: Anthropology.

Lawrence, I. J.: The Society of Nations.

Libby, Walter: An Introduction to the History of Science.

Lipton, Walter: Drift and Mastery. Liberty and the News.

Lowell, A. Lawrence: Public Opinion and Popular Government.

Lowie, Robert H.: Culture and Ethnology. Primitive Society.

Mahaffy, J. P.: The Story of Alexander's Empire.

Mason, Otis Tufton: The Origins of Inventions.

Mason, Wm. A.: The History of the Art of Writing.

May, Thos. E.: Democracy in Europe.

McCarthy, Justin: The Epoch of Reform.

McGiffert, Arthur C.: The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas.

Meyers, J. L.: The Dawn of History.

Mills, John: Within the Atom.

Monroe, Dana Carlton: The Middle Ages.

Monroe, Paul: History of Education.

Morris, Charles: Civilization: An Historical Review of Its Elements.

Morris, William O'Connor: The French Revolution and the First Empire.

Murray, Gilbert: Ancient Greece.

O'Leary, De Lacy: Arabic Thought and Its Place in History.

Osborn, Henry Fairfield: Men of the Old Stone Age.

Peet, Stephen: The Cliff Dwellers.

Plato's Republic: Translation by Jowett.

Powell, I. W.: The Pueblo Indians.

Preston and Dodge: The Private Life of the Romans.

Ragozin, Z. A.: The Story of Chaldea.

Rawlinson, George: Ancient Monarchies. The Story of Egypt.

Robinson, James Harvey: The Mind in the Making.

Sayre, Francis B.: Experiments in International Administration.

Scott, J. B. (editor): President Wilson's Foreign Policy: Messages, Addresses, and Papers.

Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W.: A Short History of Science.

Seebohm, Frederick: The Era of the Protestant Revolt.

Semple, Ellen C.: Influences of Geographic Environment.

Sloane, W. M.: The Powers and Aims of Western Democracy.

Slosson, Edwin E.: Creative Chemistry.

Smith, J. Russell: The World and Its Food Resources.

Smith, Walter R.: Educational Sociology.

Spinden, H. J.: Ancient Civilization of Mexico.

Stubbs, William: The Early Plantagenets.

Symonds, John Addington: The Renaissance in Italy.

Taylor, Edward B.: Researches Into the Early History of Mankind. The Development of Civilization.

Thwing, Charles F. and Carrie F.: The Family.

Todd, Arthur James: Theories of Social Progress.

Turner, F. J.: The Rise of the New West.

Tyler, John M.: The New Stone Age of Northern Europe.

Van Hook, La Rue: Greek Life and Thought.

Walker, Francis A.: The Making of a Nation.

Wallas, Graham: Great Society. Principles of Western Civilization.

Weber, Alfred, and R. B. Perry: History of Philosophy.

Weigall, Arthur: The Story of the Pharaohs.

White, Andrew D.: The French Revolution and the First Empire.

Whitney, Wm. Dwight: The Life and Growth of Language.

Wilder, H. H.: Man's Prehistoric Past.

Wissler, Clark: The American Indian. Man and Culture.

1

See Chapter IV.

2

See Chapter III.

3

See Chapter IV.

4

See Chapter VI.

5

See Chapter XXVII.

6

See Cooley, Social Organization, chap. III.

7

The transition from the ethnic state to the modern civic state was through conflict, conquest, and race amalgamation.

8

See Diagram, p. 59.

9

See Haeckel, Schmidt, Ward, Robinson, Osborn, Todd.

10

See Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age.

11

After Osborn. Read from bottom up.

12

See Chapter II.

13

Estimates of Neanderthal vary from 150,000 to 50,000 years ago.

14

See p. 64.

15

Man and Culture.

16

See Chapter III.

17

Keane, The World's Peoples, p. 49.

18

Henry Thomas Buckle, History of Civilization in England. General Introduction.

19

L. W. King, History of Sumer and Akkad. History of Babylon.

20

See Chapter VII.

21

Recent discoveries in Nevada and Utah indicate a wide territorial extension of the Pueblo type.

22

Sergi, in his Mediterranean Race, says that they came from N. E. Africa. Beginning about 5000 years B.C., they gradually infiltrated the whole Mediterranean region. This is becoming the general belief among ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians.

23

Recent studies indicate that some of the Cretan inscriptions are prototypes of the Greece-Phoenician alphabet. The Phoenicians evidently derived the original characters of their alphabet from a number of sources. The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet about 800-1000 B.C.

24

Some authorities state forty assemblies were held each year.

25

The Confederation of Delos, the Athenian Empire, and the Peloponnesian League were attempts to federalize Greece. They were successful only in part.

26

Hadley, Introduction to Roman Law.

27

Adams, Civilization During the Middle Ages.

28

Adams, Civilization During the Middle Ages, chap. I.

29

See Chapter XXI.

30

The modern Prussian military state was a departure from the main trend of Teutonic life. It represented a combination of later feudalism and the Roman imperialism. It was a perversion of normal development, a fungous growth upon institutions of freedom and justice.

31

History of France.

32

See Chapter XXI.

33

Advancement of Learning, iv, 5.

34

See Chapter XXIX.

35

Revival of Learning.

36

See Chapter XXI.

37

See preceding chapter.

38

Theologia Germania, generally accredited to Tauler, but written by one of his followers.

39

The Holy Roman Empire, p. 327.

40

History of Civilization, vol. I, pp. 255-257.

41

Recent writers emphasize the economic and national causes, which should be added to this list.

42

Luther sent his ninety-five theses to Archbishop Albert of Mainz.

43

Luther had many friends In the diet. Also he was in his own country before a German national assembly. Huss was in a foreign country before a church assembly.

44

Consider the commission form of city government and the municipal manager plan.

45

See Chapter XXI.

46

Taylor, The Mediaeval Mind, vol. II, p. 508.

47

Libby, History of Science, p. 63.

48

Copernicus's view was not published until thirty-six years after its discovery. A copy of his book was brought to him at his death-bed, but he refused to look at it.

49

Libby, p. 91.

50

Libby, History of Science, p. 280.

51

Libby, Introduction to the History of Science.

52

The newly created department at Johns Hopkins University for the study of international relations may assist in the abolition of war.