Биология добра и зла. Как наука объясняет наши поступки

302

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303

B. Knutson et al., “FMRI Visualization of Brain Activity During a Monetary Incentive Delay Task,” Neuroimage 12 (2000): 20; E. Barkley-Levenson and A. Galvan, “Neural Representation of Expected Value in the Adolescent Brain,” PNAS 111 (2014): 1646; S. Schneider et al., “Risk Taking and the Adolescent Reward System: A Potential Common linkg to Substance Abuse,” Am J Psychiatry 169 (2012): 39; S. Burnett et al., “Development During Adolescence of the Neural Processing of Social Emotion,” J Cog Nsci 21 (2008): 1; J. Bjork et al., “Developmental Differences in Posterior Mesofrontal Cortex Recruitment by Risky Rewards,” J Nsci 27 (2007): 4839; J. Bjork et al., “Incentive-Elicited Brain Activation in Adolescents: Similarities and Differences from Young Adults,” J Nsci 25 (2004): 1793; S. Blakemore et al., “Adolescent Development of the Neural Circuitry for Thinking About Intentions,” SCAN 2 (2007): 130.

304

A. Galvan et al., “Earlier Development of the Accumbens Relative to Orbitofrontal Cortex Might Underlie Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescents,” J Nsci 26 (2006): 6885 (рисунок в тексте взят из этого же источника). Демонстрация более единообразного и выверенного дофаминергического ответа у взрослых на награду разного размера: J. Vaidya et al., “Neural Sensitivity to Absolute and Relative Anticipated Reward in Adolescents,” PLoS ONE 8 (2013): e58708.

305

A. R. Smith et al., “Age Differences in the Impact of Peers on Adolescents’ and Adults’ Neural Response to Reward,” Developmental Cog Nsci 11 (2015): 75; J. Chein et al., “Peers Increase Adolescent Risk Taking by Enhancing Activity in the Brain’s Reward Circuitry,” Developmental Sci 14 (2011): F1; M. Gardner and L. Steinberg, “Peer Influence on Risk Taking, Risk Preference, and Risky Decision Making in Adolescence and Adulthood: An Experimental Study,” Developmental Psych 41 (2005): 625; L. Steinberg, “A Social Neuroscience Perspective on Adolescent Risk-Taking,” Developmental Rev 28 (2008): 78; M. Grosbras et al., “Neural Mechanisms of Resistance to Peer Influence in Early Adolescence,” J Nsci 27 (2007): 8040; A. Weigard et al., “Effects of Anonymous Peer Observation on Adolescents’ Preference for Immediate Rewards,” Developmental Science 17 (2014): 71.

306

M. Madden et al., “Teens, Social Media, and Privacy,” Pew Research Center, May 23, 2013, www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2013/Teens-Social-Media-And-Privacy/Summary-of-Findings.aspx.

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A. Guyer et al., “Amygdala and Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex Function During Anticipated Peer Evaluation in Pediatric Social Anxiety,” AGP 65 (2008): 1303; A. Guyer et al., “Probing the Neural Correlates of Anticipated Peer Evaluation in Adolescence,” Child Development 80 (2009): 1000; B. Gunther Moor et al., “Do You Like Me? Neural Correlates of Social Evaluation and Developmental Trajectories,” Soc Nsci 5 (2010): 461.

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N. Eisenberger et al., “Does Rejection Hurt? An fMRI Study of Social Exclusion,” Sci 302 (2003): 290; N. Eisenberger, “The Pain of Social Disconnection: Examining the Shared Neural Underpinnings of Physical and Social Pain,” Nat Rev Nsci 3 (2012): 421.

309

C. Sebastian et al., “Development Influences on the Neural Bases of Responses to Social Rejection: Implications of Social Neuroscience for Education,” NeuroImage 57 (2011): 686; C. Masten et al., “Neural Correlates of Social Exclusion During Adolescence: Understanding the Distress of Peer Rejection,” SCAN 4 (2009): 143; J. Pfeifer and S. Blakemore, “Adolescent Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience: Past, Present, and Future,” SCAN 7 (2012): 1.

310

J. Pfeifer et al., “Entering Adolescence: Resistance to Peer Influence, Risky Behavior, and Neural Changes in Emotion Reactivity,” Neuron 69 (2011): 1029; L. Steinberg and K. Monahan, “Age Differences in Resistance to Peer Influence,” Developmental Psych 43 (2007): 1531; M. Grosbras et al., “Neural Mechanisms of Resistance to Peer Influence in Early Adolescence,” J Nsci 27 (2007): 8040.

311

I. Almas et al., “Fairness and the Development of Inequality Acceptance,” Sci 328 (2010): 1176.

312

J. Decety and K. Michalska, “Neurodevelopmental Changes in the Circuits Underlying Empathy and Sympathy from Childhood to Adulthood,” Developmental Sci 13 (2010): 886.

313

N. Eisenberg et al., “The Relations of Emotionality and Regulation to Dispositional and Situational Empathy-Related Responding,” JPSP 66 (1994): 776; J. Decety et al., “The Developmental Neuroscience of Moral Sensitivity,” Emotion Rev 3 (2011): 305.

314

E. Finger et al., “Disrupted Reinforcement Signaling in the Orbitofrontal Cortex and Caudate in Youths with Conduct Disorder or Oppositional Defiant Disorder and a High Level of Psychopathic Traits,” Am J Psychiatry 168 (2011): 152; A. Marsh et al., “Reduced Amygdala-Orbitofrontal Connectivity During Moral Judgments in Youths with Disruptive Behavior Disorders and Psychopathic Traits,” Psychiatry Res 194 (2011): 279.

315

L. Steinberg, “The Influence of Neuroscience on US Supreme Court Decisions About Adolescents’ Criminal Culpability,” Nat Rev Nsci 14 (2013): 513.

316

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317

J. Sallet et al, “Social Network Size Affects Neural Circuits in Macaques,” Sci 334 (2011): 697.

318

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319

Демонстрация возможности предсказывать степень связи: N. Dosenbach et al., “Prediction of Individual Brain Maturity Using fMRI,” Sci 329 (2010): 1358.

320

N. Uesaka et al., “Retrograde Semaphorin Signaling Regulates Synapse Elimination in the Developing Mouse Brain,” Sci 344 (2014): 1020; R. C. Paolicelli et al., “Synaptic Pruning by Microglia Is Necessary for Normal Brain Development,” Sci 333 (2011): 1456; R. Buss et al., “Adaptive Roles of Programmed Cell Death During Nervous System Development,” Ann Rev of Nsci 29 (2006): 1; D. Nijhawan et al., “Apoptosis in Neural Development and Disease,” Ann Rev of Nsci 23 (2000): 73; C. Kuan et al., “Mechanisms of Programmed Cell Death in the Developing Brain,” TINS 23 (2000): 291.

321

J. Piaget, Main Trends in Psychology (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973); J. Piaget, The Language and Thought of the Child (New York: Psychology Press, 1979).

322

Другие аспекты этапов развития: R. Selman et al., “Interpersonal Awareness in Children: Toward an Integration of Developmental and Clinical Child Psychology,” Am J Orthopsychiatry 47 (1977): 264; T. Singer, “The Neuronal Basis and Ontogeny of Empathy and Mind Reading: Review of Literature and Implications for Future Research,” Nsci Biobehav Rev 30 (2006): 855.

323

S. Baron-Cohen, “Precursors to a Theory of Mind: Understanding Attention in Others,” in Natural Theories of Mind: Evolution, Development and Simulation of Everyday Mindreading, ed. A. Whiten (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991); J. Topal et al., “Differential Sensitivity to Human Communication in Dogs, Wolves, and Human Infants,” Sci 325 (2009): 1269; G. Lakatos et al., “A Comparative Approach to Dogs’ (Canis familiaris) and Human Infants’ Comprehension of Various Forms of Pointing Gestures,” Animal Cog 12 (2009): 621 J. Kaminski et al., “Domestic Dogs are Sensitive to a Human’s Perspective,” Behaviour 146 (2009): 979.

324

S. Baron-Cohen et al., “Does the Autistic Child Have a ‘Theory of Mind’?” Cog 21 (2985): 37.

325

L. Young et al., “Disruption of the Right Temporal Lobe Function with TMS Reduces the Role of Beliefs in Moral Judgments,” PNAS 107 (2009): 6753; Y. Moriguchi et al., “Changes of Brain Activity in the Neural Substrates for Theory of Mind During Childhood and Adolescence,” Psychiatry and Clin Nsci 61 (2007): 355; A. Saitovitch et al., “Social Cognition and the Superior Temporal Sulcus: Implications in Autism,” Rev of Neurol (Paris) 168 (2012): 762; P. Shaw et al., “The Impact of Early and Late Damage to the Human Amygdala on ‘Theory of Mind’ Reasoning,” Brain 127 (2004): 1535.

326

B. Sodian and S. Kristen, “Theory of Mind During Infancy and Early Childhood Across Cultures, Development of,” Int Encyclopedia of the Soc & Behav Sci (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2015), p. 268.

327

S. Nichols, “Experimental Philosophy and the Problem of Free Will,” Sci 331 (2011): 1401.

328

D. Premack and G. Woodruff, “Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind?” BBS 1 (1978): 515. Данные «против»: D. Povinelli and J. Vonk, “Chimpanzee Minds: Suspiciously Human?” TICS 7 (2003): 157. Данные «за»: B. Hare et al., “Do Chimpanzees Know What Conspecifics Know and Do Not Know?” Animal Behav 61 (2001): 139. К сноске: L. Santo Let al., “Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Know What Others Can and Cannot Hear,” Animal Behav 71 (2006): 1175.

329

J. Decety et al., “The Contribution of Emotion and Cognition to Moral Sensitivity: A Neurodevelopmental Study,” Cerebral Cortex 22 (2011): 209.

330

J. Decety et al., “Who Caused the Pain? An fMRI Investigation of Empathy and Intentionality in Children,” Neuropsychologia 46 (2008): 2607; J. Decety et al., “The Contribution of Emotion and Cognition to Moral Sensitivity: A Neurodevelopmental Study,” Cerebral Cortex 22 (2012): 209; J. Decety and K. Michalska, “Neurodevelopmental Changes in the Circuits Underlying Empathy and Sympathy from Childhood to Adulthood,” Developmental Sci 13 (2010): 886.

331

J. Decety et al., “The Contribution of Emotion and Cognition to Moral Sensitivity: A Neurodevelopmental Study,” Cerebral Cortex 22 (2012): 209; N. Eisenberg et al., “The Relations of Emotionality and Regulation to Dispositional and Situational Empathy-Related Responding,” JPSP 66 (1994): 776.

332

P. Blake et al., “The Ontogeny of Fairness in Seven Societies,” Nat 528 (2016): 258.

333

I. Almas et al., “Fairness and the Development of Inequality Acceptance,” Sci 328 (2010): 1176; E. Fehr et al., “Egalitarianism in Young Children,” Nat 454 (2008): 1079; K. Olson et al., “Children’s Responses to Group-Based Inequalities: Perpetuation and Rectification,” Soc Cog¯29 (2011): 270; M. Killen, “Children’s Social and Moral Reasoning About Exclusion,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 16 (2007): 32.

334

D. Garz, Lawrence Kohlberg: An Introduction (Cologne, Germany: Barbara Budrich, 2009).

335

C. Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982).

336

N. Eisenberg, “Emotion, Regulation, and Moral Development,” Ann Rev of Psych 51 (2000): 665; J. Hamlin et al., “Social Evaluation by Preverbal Infants,” Nat 450 (2007): 557; M. Hoffman, Empathy and Moral Development: Implications for Caring and Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).

337

W. Mischel et al., “Cognitive and Attentional Mechanisms in Delay of Gratification,” JPSP 21 (1972): 204; W. Mischel, The Marshmallow Test: Understanding Self-Control and How to Master It (New York: Bantam Books, 2014); K. McRae et al., “The Development of Emotion Regulation: An fMRI Study of Cognitive Reappraisal in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults,” SCAN 7 (2012): 11; H. Palmeri and R. N. Aslin, “Rational Snacking: Young Children’s Decision-Making on the Marshmallow Task is Moderated by Beliefs About Environmental Reliability,” Cog 126 (2013): 109.

338

B. J. Casey et al., “From the Cover: Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Delay of Gratification 40 Years Later,” PNAS 108 (2011): 14998; N. Eisenberg et al., “Contemporaneous and Longitudinal Prediction of Children’s Social Functioning from Regulation and Emotionality,” Child Development 68 (1997): 642; N. Eisenberg et al., “The Relations of Regulation and Emotionality to Resiliency and Competent Social Functioning in Elementary School Children,” Child Development 68 (1997): 295.

339

L. Holt, The Care and Feeding of Children (NY: Appleton-Century, 1894). Между 1894 и 1915 г. эта книга пережила 15 изданий.

340

Об истории госпитализма см.: R. Sapolsky, “How the Other Half Heals,” Discover, April 1998, p. 46.

341

J. Bowlby Attachment and Loss, vol. 1, Attachment (New York: Basic Books, 1969); J. Bowlby, Attachment and Loss, vol. 2, Separation (London: Hogarth Press, 1973); J. Bowlby, Attachment and Loss, vol. 3, Loss: Sadness & Depression (London: Hogarth Press, 1980).

342

D. Blum, Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection (New York: Perseus, 2002). Из этого источника взята цитата Хорлоу.

343

R. Rosenfeld, “The Case of the Unsolved Crime Decline,” Sci Am, February 2004, p. 82; J. Donohue III and S. Levitt, “The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime,” Quarterly J Economics 116 (2001): 379. Raine et al., “Birth Complications Combined with Early Maternal Rejection at Age 1 Year Predispose to Violent Crime at Age 18 Years,” AGP 51 (1994): 984; К сноске: J. Bowlby, “Forty-four Juvenile Thieves: Their Characters and Home-Life,” Int J Psychoanalysis 25 (1944): 107.

344

G. Barr et al., “Transitions in Infant Learning Are Modulated by Dopamine in the Amygdala,” Nat Nsci 12 (2009): 1367; R. Sullivan et al., “Good Memories of Bad Events,” Nat 407 (2000): 38; S. Moriceau et al., “Dual Circuitry for Odor-Shock Conditioning During Infancy: Corticosterone Switches Between Fear and Attraction via Amygdala,” J Nsci 26 (2006): 6737; R. Sapolsky, “Any Kind of Mother in a Storm,” Nat Nsci 12 (2009): 1355.

345

R. Sapolsky and M. Meaney, “Maturation of the Adrenocortical Stress Response: Neuroendocrine Control Mechanisms and the Stress Hyporesponsive Period,” Brain Res Rev 11 (1986): 65.

346

L. M. Renner and K. S. Slack, “Intimate Partner Violence and Child Maltreatment: Understanding Intra-and Intergenerational Connections,” Child Abuse & Neglect 30 (2006): 599.

347

D. Maestripieri, “Early Experience Affects the Intergenerational Transmission of Infant Abuse in Rhesus Monkeys,” PNAS 102 (2005): 9726.

348

C. Hammen et al., “Depression and Sensitization to Stressors Among Young Women as a Function of Childhood Adversity,” J Consulting Clin Psych 68 (2000): 782; E. McCrory et al., “The linkh Between Child Abuse and Psychopathology: A Review of Neurobiological and Genetic Research,” J the Royal Soc of Med 105 (2012): 151; K. Lalor and R. McElvaney, “Child Sexual Abuse, linkhs to Later Sexual Exploitation/ High-Risk Sexual Behavior, and Prevention / Treatment Programs,” Trauma Violence & Abuse 11 (2010): 159; Y. Dvir et al., “Childhood Maltreatment, Emotional Dysregulation, and Psychiatric Comorbidities,” Harvard Rev of Psychiatry 22 (2014): 149; E. Mezzacappa et al., “Child Abuse and Performance Task Assessments of Executive Functions in Boys,” J Child Psych and Psychiatry 42 (2001): 1041; M. Wichers et al., “Transition from Stress Sensitivity to a Depressive State: Longitudinal Twin Study,” Brit J Psychiatry 195 (2009): 498.

349

C. Heim et al., “Pituitary-Adrenal and Autonomic Responses to Stress in Women After Sexual and Physical Abuse in Childhood,” JAMA 284 (2000): 592; E. Binder et al., “Association of FKBP5 Polymorphisms and Childhood Abuse with Risk of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Adults,” JAMA 299 (2008): 1291; C. Heim et al., “The Dexamethasone/Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Test in Men with Major Depression: Role of Childhood Trauma,” BP 63 (2008): 398; R. Lee et al., “Childhood Trauma and Personality Disorder: Positive Correlation with Adult CSF Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Concentrations,” Am J Psychiatry 162 (2005): 995; R. J. Lee et al., “CSF Corticotropin-Releasing Factor in Personality Disorder: Relationship with Self-Reported Parental Care,” Neuropsychopharmacology 31: (2006): 2289; L. Carpenter et al., “Cerebrospinal Fluid Corticotropin-Releasing Factor and Perceived Early-Life Stress in Depressed Patients and Healthy Control Subjects,” Neuropsychopharmacology 29 (2004): 777; T. Rinne et al., “Hyperresponsiveness of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis to Combined Dexamethasone / Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Challenge in Female Borderline Personality Disorder Subjects with a History of Sustained Childhood Abuse,” BP 52 (2002): 1102; P. McGowan et al., “Epigenetic Regulation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor in Human Brain Associates with Childhood Abuse,” Nat Nsci 12 (2009): 342; M. Toth et al., “Post-weaning Social Isolation Induces Abnormal Forms of Aggression in Conjunction with Increased Glucocorticoid and Autonomic Stress Responses,” Horm Behav 60 (2011): 28.

350

S. Lupien et al., “Effects of Stress Throughout the Lifespan on the Brain, Behaviour and Cognition,” Nat Rev Nsci 10 (2009): 434; V. Carrion et al., “Stress Predicts Brain Changes in Children: A Pilot Longitudinal Study on Youth Stress, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and the Hippocampus,” Pediatrics 119 (2007): 509; F. L. Woon and D. W. Hedges, “Hippocampal and Amygdala Volumes in Children and Adults with Childhood Maltreatment – Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-analysis,” Hippocampus 18 (2008): 729.

351

S. J. Lupien et al., “Effects of Stress Throughout the Lifespan on the Brain, Behaviour and Cognition,” Nat Rev Nsci 10 (2009): 434; D. Hackman et al., “Socioeconomic Status and the Brain: Mechanistic Insights from Human and Animal Research,” Nat Rev Nsci 11 (2010): 651; M. Sheridan et al., “The Impact of Social Disparity on Prefrontal Function in Childhood,” PLoS ONE 7 (2012): e35744; J. L. Hanson et al., “Structural Variations in Prefrontal Cortex Mediate the Relationship Between Early Childhood Stress and Spatial Working Memory,” J Nsci 32 (2012): 7917; M. Sweitzer et al., “Polymorphic Variation in the Dopamine D4 Receptor Predicts Delay Discounting as a Function of Childhood Socioeconomic Status: Evidence for Differential Susceptibility,” SCAN 8 (2013): 499; E. Tucker-Drob et al., “Emergence of a Gene X Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Infant Mental Ability Between 10 Months and 2 Years,” Psych Sci 22 (2011): 125; I. Liberzon et al., “Childhood Poverty Alters Emotional Regulation in Adulthood,” SCAN 10 (2015): 1596; K. G. Noble et al., “Family Income, Parental Education and Brain Structure in Children and Adolescents,” Nat Nsci 18 (2015): 773.

352

К сноске: R. Nevin, “Understanding International Crime Trends: The Legacy of Preschool Lead Exposure,” Environmental Res 104 (2007): 315.

353

Reviewed in R. Sapolsky, Why Zebras Don’t Get Ulcers: A Guide to Stress, Stress-Related Diseases and Coping, 3rd ed. (New York: Holt, 2004). Как это происходит у павианов: P. O. Onyango et al., “Persistence of Maternal Effects in Baboons: Mother’s Dominance Rank at Son’s Conception Predicts Stress Hormone Levels in Subadult Males,” Horm Behav 54 (2008): 319.

354

F. L. Woon and D. W. Hedges, “Hippocampal and Amygdala Volumes in Children and Adults with Childhood Maltreatment – Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Meta-analysis,” Hippocampus 18 (2008): 729; D. Gee et al., “Early Developmental Emergence of Human Amygdala-PFC Connectivity After Maternal Deprivation,” PNAS 110 (2013): 15638; A. K. Olsavsky et al., “Indiscriminate Amygdala Response to Mothers and Strangers After Early Maternal Deprivation,” BP 74 (2013): 853.

355

L. M. Oswald et al., “History of Childhood Adversity Is Positively Associated with Ventral Striatal Dopamine ® Responses to Amphetamine,” Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 23 (2014): 2417; E. Hensleigh and L. M. Pritchard, “Maternal Separation Increases Methamphetamine-Induced Damage in the Striatum in Male, But Not Female Rats,” BBS 295 (2014): 3; A. N. Karkhanis et al., “Social Isolation Rearing Increases Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine and Norepinephrine Responses to Acute Ethanol in Adulthood,” Alcohol: Clin Exp Res 38 (2014): 2770.

356

C. Anacker et al., “Early Life Adversity and the Epigenetic Programming of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Function,” Dialogues in Clin Nsci 16 (2014): 321.

357

S. L. Buka et al., “Youth Exposure to Violence: Prevalence, Risks, and Consequences,” Am J Orthopsychiatry 71 (2001): 298; M. B. Selner-O’Hagan et al., “Assessing Exposure to Violence in Urban Youth,” J Child Psych and Psychiatry 39 (1998): 215; P. T. Sharkey et al., “The Effect of Local Violence on Children’s Attention and Impulse Control,” Am J Public Health 102 (2012): 2287; J. B. Bingenheimer et al., “Firearm Violence Exposure and Serious Violent Behavior,” Sci 308 (2005): 1323. К сноске: I. Shaley et al., “Exposure to Violence During Childhood Is Associated with Telomere Erosion from 5 to 10 Years of Age: A Longitudinal Study,” Mol Psychiatry 18 (2013): 576.

358

Прекрасный развернутый обзор: L. Huesmann and L. Taylor, “The Role of Media Violence in Violent Behavior,” Ann Rev of Public Health 27 (2006): 393. See also J. D. Johnson et al., “Differential Gender Effects of Exposure to Rap Music on African American Adolescents’ Acceptance of Teen Dating Violence,” Sex Roles 33 (1995): 597; J. Johnson et al., “Television Viewing and Aggressive Behavior During Adolescence and Adulthood,” Sci 295 (2002): 2468; J. Savage and C. Yancey, “The Effects of Media Violence Exposure on Criminal Aggression: A Meta-analysis,” Criminal Justice and Behav 35 (2008): 772; C. Anderson et al., “Violent Video Game Effects on Aggression, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior in Eastern and Western Countries: A Metaanalytic Review,” Psych Bull 136, 151; C. J. Ferguson, “Evidence for Publication Bias in Video Game Violence Effects Literature: A Meta-analytic Review,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 12 (2007): 470; C. Ferguson, “The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: A Meta-analytic Review of Positive and Negative Effects of Violent Video Games,” Psychiatric Quarterly 78 (2007): 309.