IT Architecture from A to Z: Theoretical basis. First Edition

KANBAN is much less strict than SCRUM since it does not restrict the time of sprints, or has any roles, except for the product owner. KANBAN even allows a team member to carry out several assignments simultaneously, while SCRUM does not. In addition, meetings on the project status are not regulated – one can do it in a convenient schedule, not to do it at all.

Working with KANBAN requires identification of workflow stages, which are presented as columns where assignments are indicated by stickers. The stickers are transferred from stage to stage, as parts are transferred from machine to machine within the factory. The completion level on each stage increases. The output is a product element ready for supply to the customer. A board with columns and stickers can be physical or electronic since KANBAN does not restrict its users. KANBAN system can be as flexible as you want it to be as KANBAN is a visualization of AGILE idea of in many ways.

KANBAN has four pillars to support the whole system:

• Stickers: Each assignment has an individual sticker, containing all required information on the assignment. Therefore, all required information is available at all time.

• Limited number of assignment per stage: The number of stickers per stage is strictly regulated. Thanks to this, a “jam” in the workflow is clearly visible and promptly eliminated.

• Continuous flow: Tasks from the backlog get into the flow in order of priority. Thus, the work never stops.

• Continuous Improvement (kaizen): The concept of continuous improvement was first implemented in Japan at the end of the 20th century. Its essence is the constant analysis of the production process and the search for ways to increase productivity.

Strengths – Like SCRUM, KANBAN is well suited for a well-knitted team with good communication. But unlike SCRUM, KANBAN does not have a clear timeframe, which is more appropriate for motivated and experienced teams. If adjustment and management are proper, KANBAN can be of great benefit to the project team. Exact calculation of the load on the team, the correct placement of restrictions and concentration on continuous improvement – all this allows KANBAN to save resources, stay within the schedule, and budget. And all above-mentioned is spiced up with flexibility.

Weaknesses – one can often hear that KANBAN, unlike SCRUM, suits nearly any team. But this is a false statement. KANBAN is best suited for teams whose members have overlapping skills. So, they can help each other overcome difficulties in solving problems. Otherwise, Kanban will not be as effective as it could be. As mentioned before, KANBAN is better suited in cases with no strict deadlines. The project with strict deadlines is better managed by classical approach or SCRUM.

Hybrid Project Management Methodology

Even though many teams prefer either a waterfall methodology or AGILE design, the benefits of both approaches have led to the emergence of a hybrid methodology where the stages of planning and definition of are carried out according to the waterfall methodology, and the design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases correspond to a flexible approach. This methodology is an attempt to apply the strengths of each main approach, as well as reduce the negative impact of weaknesses. The hybrid methodology can be well-applicable to IT since the project has well-defined goals at the managerial level, is well documented, and provides the ability to monitor the project status to report to the leadership. During implementation, the project assignments are well detailed and understandable to the developers due to the high communication level between business representatives and executors. The opportunity of on-job learning, making mistakes and improving the product to the current business requirements is equally good for developers and businesses. Of course, everything has to be paid for. This approach imposes requirements on both the technical level of employees training and their personal qualities.

Hybrid Model

From my own experience of project management in the IT department, this approach should not be implemented at the very beginning. However, as the IT department and business work together on several projects, this method will be a logical continuation and the most effective and productive one.

Other methods and approaches to project management

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

Rapid Application Development (RAD) is a specific project methodology, most often used in software development projects whose main purpose is to create an application quickly and efficiently.

Diagram “Comparison of WATERFLOW and RAD approaches”

The essence of this methodology is an approach to creating software development tools, emphasizing the speed and convenience of programming, creating a workflow that allows a programmer to create computer programs as quickly as possible. Practical definition: RAD is the life cycle of a design process designed to achieve higher development speed and software quality than the traditional design approach allows. This project management methodology identifies four project stages:

• Requirements planning;

• User design;

• Rapid construction;

• Cutover.

The main benefits of using various RAD approaches:

• Application of an iterative approach to the solutions development. The iterative approach implies carrying out work simultaneously with the continuous analysis of the results and the adjustment of the previous stages of work, i.e. feedback. When using this approach the project has a recurring cycle of Planning-Implementation-Verification-Evaluation. Iterative approach enables RAD’s prompt response to changing business requirements.

• An incremental approach implies the sequential development of a service “from piece to piece”. At the same time, each “piece” can support one of the business functions for which the service is developed. The incremental approach allows business the use some significant part of the service before it is fully developed. The additional benefits are: the product enters the market faster, there are more opportunities to develop a user-friendly interface, and it has greater adaptability to changing business requirements and simplicity of development and changes in the solution functionality. The methodology of rapid application development, on the one hand, helps improve project performance indicators and the quality of risk management. But on the other hand, this metrology is not suitable for large-scale IT projects, as it can lead to poor code quality and requires constant customer’s involvement in the execution of the entire project. RAD is a more modern and flexible design approach.

The deficiencies are a weak document base that can lead to misunderstandings, errors in the formation and development, the complexity of monitoring and auditing the development process. When designing services, incremental and iterative approaches can be combined. Once the entire service requirements are defined, its individual parts can be incrementally developed.

Extreme Programming XP

This project management methodology provides capabilities of short development cycles, frequent releases and open interaction with stakeholders. The teams focus on collaboration, efficiency, and productivity, writing the simplest possible codes to achieve the desired quality, avoiding exhaustion and poor quality results.

Event Chain Methodology (ECM)

This project management methodology helps identify and predict potential risks. Analyzing a project using the Monte Carlo method and the Event Chain Diagram helps determine the likelihood of some risks and their possible impact on the entire project. Visualizing the links between external events and project work helps create a plan which is as real as possible.

Adaptive Project Framework (APF)

Using the Adaptive Project Framework enables improving the project at each stage, based on the previous experience. By defining the project objectives and constantly monitoring the project work, the manager can ensure the success of the highest possible business value and create business value for the potential consumer.

Benefit Realization (BF)

The objective of Benefit Realization method is the benefit from the project implementation. Success is defined as the achievement of the desired / expected benefit. If customers want to increase sales of customer relationship management (CRM) software, the project will not be terminated / implemented until sales get increased by 15% – even if CRM is installed and set up duly and within the estimated budget.

Principles-based, Sustainable Project Management (PRISM) methodology

PRISM combines project planning with environmental sustainability measures. If you want to go in the green direction, PRISM has been designed especially for you! Decreasing energy consumption and distribution costs (cost sharing) are enhanced with reducing your environmental impact.

In addition to above-mentioned, there are other project management methodologies:

• Feature Driven Development (FDD),

• Dynamic Systems Development (DSDM),

• Rational Unified Process (RUP),

• Six Sigma and lean production (LEAN). Project management based on the principles of “quality control” will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.

PRINCE2 Methodology

Projects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2) is a structured project management project management methodology. It is one of the most popular project management methodologies, widely used by the UK business and government. PRINCE2 is Process-Based Project Management (PBPM) that focuses on top-level processes (management, organization, control), and not on lower-level tasks (work decomposition, schedule development).

The PRINCE2 methodology is based on seven principles, seven themes and seven processes. The principles are the core element of the methodology: if at least one of them is not implemented, the project is not carried out via PRINCE2.

The 7 Principles

•Continued Business Justification identifies whether the economic benefit of the project remains unchanged throughout the project’s life cycle.

•Learn from Experience implies that project teams should take lessons from previous projects into account.

•Define Roles and Responsibilities implies that project team must have a clear organizational structure and involve the right people to solve the tasks.

•Manage by Stages is required to get projects planned, monitored and controlled at each stage.

•Manage by Exception implies that the permissible deviation boundaries within the project should be clearly defined in order to establish the lines of responsibility.

•Focus on Products requires focusing on determination and achieving the project outcomes.

•Tailor to the Environment implies that project management processes and tools should be tailored to the requirements of the project environment, as well as to the scope of work, its complexity, importance, qualification requirements and risk level.

PRINCE2 ensures that every project has a business case and contributes value creation. Planning begins with a clear definition of the needs requested by the consumer, the real benefits and accurate cost estimates.

The 7 Themes

•Business Case: what value will the project bring to business?

•Organization: how to distribute roles and responsibilities among project team members in order to manage the project effectively?

•Quality: what are the requirements and criteria for quality and how to provide them?

•Plans: the steps required to develop the plan, and the PRINCE2 tools to use.

•Risk: how will the project management solve the problem of uncertain events in the project plan and in the external environment?

•Change: how will the project management evaluate and respond to the impact of unforeseen tasks and changes?

•Progress: feasibility of the project, the implementation of plans and further development of the project.

The 7 Processes

Finally, PRINCE2 involves the following seven project management processes:

• Starting Up a Project (SU)

• Directing a Project (DP)

• Initiating a Project (IP)

• Controlling a Stage (CS)

• Managing Product Delivery (MP)

• Managing Stage Boundaries (SB)

• Closing a Project (CP).

PRINCE2 allows standardizing project management procedures, improving coordination of activities, and helps understand how to plan a project and monitor its implementation, what should be done if a project plan is not executed. However, PRINCE2 methodology is not the best choice for small-scale projects or for projects with a greater of likelihood of changes in the scope of work and requirements for them.

PRINCE2 strengths are:

• Adaptability to the organizational features;

• Having a clear description of roles and responsibilities;

• Focus on project products;

• Certain management levels;

• Focus on economic feasibility;

• The sequence of project work;

• Focus on experience fixing and continuous improvement.

PRINCE2 weaknesses are lack or absence of industry practices and specific work tools.

PROJECT MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE (PMI)

General provisions

This methodology represents Process-Based Project Management (PBPM) and is based on the methodology of the traditional, classical approach to project management. The most obvious way to make a project more manageable is to break its execution into consecutive stages. Traditional project management is based on this linear structure. All processes in the PMBooK manual are divided into the following groups (phases):

Initiating

At this stage, meetings and brainstorming sessions are often held to determine what the project product should be. In some ways, the most important part of the project is the beginning. This stage gives clear understanding whether the project is well developed and can be terminated within the deadlines set by the top management and within the budget, or it has no prospects and is doomed to failure from the very beginning. This part of the project is not a place for rash promises to win. It is rather a time for a rational and creative approach to formulate initial project requirements in order to avoid dead ends. One should remember that once the project goal is set, leadership would expect you to achieve it. Initiating consists of processes that facilitate the formal authorization of a new project start.

• Develop Project Charter

• Identity Stakeholders

Planning

Defines and clarifies goals and action plans required to achieve the objectives and content of the project. Planning is the definition of clear and precise tasks, and as a result of assignments that serve to achieve the ultimate goal. The goal may be a solution to a problem or the attainment of a state or condition different from the existing one. At this stage, the team decides how they will achieve the goal set at the previous stage. At this stage, the team clarifies and details the goals and project results, as well as the scope of work needed. This information is used to make a calendar plan and estimate the budget, assess the risks and identify the stakeholders. Project planning may require a significant investment of time, effort and resources, depending on its size. As practice shows that efforts and resources can be wasted if you do not plan properly for a specific project before deciding whether to implement it or not.

Project organization is a primary project management task. A project owner, a person or group authorizes to make decisions, should be defined, a project manager should be appointed and a project team should be formed, project managing and interacting procedure should be determined, and the relevant powers to the project manager and project team should be highlighted. Project management beyond the functional boundaries of the organization is one of the project manager’s tasks. He/she has to communicate, generate ideas, negotiate, solve problems and resolve conflicts outside the functional and sometimes geographical boundaries of the organization. Setting a task, justifying the need for a project and describing its capabilities allow formulating the goal of the project. Such a formulation can be very brief, but it should be precise. Setting project objectives is important for two reasons:

• The task clearly defines what needs to be done to achieve the goals;

• A task is an event with determinable deadline.

The “SMART” method helps formulate the project goals and objectives as:

• Specific – be accurate when setting goals;

• Measurable – Set measurable status indicators;

• Assignable – be able to assign a task to someone;

• Realistic – Determine whether the project can actually be terminated duly and within allocated resources;

• Time related – determine the timeframe, i.e. the duration of project implementation.

To achieve this goal, one should perform several basic project tasks. These tasks are private goals and the main project components (sometimes the term “milestone” is used). Individual goals are not actual assignments within the project, but are checkpoints setting the direction of work. They are more precisely formulated than the main goal and action oriented. To achieve the main goal requires realizing all private goals. The allocation of resources for the project implies that money is not the only resource required. The main resources are:

• Financial resources (direct funds required for project implementation and project management);

• Human resources (who, when, how and how long is involved in the project);

• Material resources (available, required, and so on);

• Administrative resources (authorities, organization).

Besides, this list of required resources may include changes in the company’s organizational structure, office space (for large projects), and so on. The practice shows that two most likely scenarios for resource allocation can be identified as follows:

• The project manager determines the necessary resources based on a preliminary plan, which provides an initial estimate of the amount of resources required for the project. The project manager will be able to formulate resource requirements and discuss them with the authorized manager. This scenario is the most preferable one.

• Required resources are assigned without involving the project manager. The project manager usually may not have a choice, regardless of whether sufficient resources are allocated to the project, or not. One should not be misled by the leadership and agree to the level of support, which is clearly insufficient for the project implementation. Caution and common sense should be decisive at this early stage.

The document containing the project review is compiled, analyzed by experts, and then submitted to the organization’s leadership. The next important aspect of project management is the process of splitting a project into parts, resulted in a work breakdown. A work breakdown is a hierarchical representation of a project. It helps the project manager determine the tasks to be done in order to start and finish the project. At this stage, the manager has a goal and a number of tasks that must be expressed through the tasks and work to be performed. A well-defined assignment has the following features:

• Its status and termination date is easy to determine, it has a clearly defined beginning and an end;

• It is clear, since it might have been carried out before. The time and associated costs required for its implementation can be easily estimated using the experience gained during implementation of similar tasks in the past;

• It includes controllable jobs that do not depend on activities comprising other tasks;

• It is typically one continuous work sequence.

The time to complete each task within the project should be estimated. The time required to complete the task is a random value. Therefore, if this task is recurrent, the time will change for many times. This will be fair even for regular tasks. This variation is caused by the following factors:

• The qualifications level of employees involved;

• Using various equipment;

• Availability of materials;

• Force majeure (diseases, natural disasters, accidents, rotation, etc.)

Such events may occur, but it is impossible to predict them when implementing a specific project or a task. However, they should be taken into consideration. To do this, one can use the critical path evaluation method.The cost of each assignment should be also estimated. There are four main cost categories (although organization’s chart of accounts may be used) to determine for each assignment:

• Work force;

• Materials;

• Other direct costs (business trips, telephone, contractual services);

• Indirect costs (overhead).

The next step is to determine the sequence of assignments within the project. The assignments of simple projects may be carried out one by one. Another way is to analyze all the assignments and determine which ones are to be completed before starting the others. Such an analysis reveals the order in which several assignments can be carries out simultaneously. The critical path method (MCP) determines the sequence of simultaneous assignments that allows completing a project in a timely manner. Identifying critical assignments, determining the critical path and constructing a priority diagram is to provide graphical presentation of the project. This requires mastering a few simple charting rules. An assignment is the main ordered “unit of analysis”. Tasks are represented on the diagram as rectangles, called “assignment nodes”. The symbols depicted in the rectangle describe the temporary assignment properties. Some of them describe the assignment characteristics (for example, the assignment number), while others are assignment associated estimates (ES, EF, LS, LF). The project time is the longest time path in the diagram. The longest sequence of assignments is called the critical path. As long as the assignments within the critical path are completed duly, the project is within the schedule. The four calculated parameters (ES, LS, EF, and LF) for each assignment node are to be determined. The following calculated values will be used to determine the project time and the critical path:

Early start (ES) is the earliest point in time when all the previous assignments have been completed and this assignment can be started. The ES for the first assignment is time period 0.

Early finish (EF) is the ES time plus the estimated time to complete the assignment. The ES time for an assignment preceded by one task is the EF time for this previous task. The ES time for assignments that are preceded by two or more assignments is the longest EF time for these previous assignments.

Late start (LS) and Late Finish (LF) are the latest points in time when the assignment can be started (LS) or finished (LF) without increasing the time to terminate the entire project.

To estimate these points, one should move the Backward Pass. First, the LF time for the last assignment in the diagram is taken as the EF time of the assignment considered. The LS time for a given assignment is equal to its LF time minus the estimated time to complete this assignment. The LF time for all preceding assignments is the shortest LS time for all assignments for which the assignment considered is preceding. It is necessary to calculate one more value, called the time reserve for the assignment.

Time reserve is an allowable value of delay in the start or finish of the assignment, which does not cause a delay when carrying out the entire project. The time reserve is a mathematical difference LS – ES (or LF – EF). The definition of a critical path is a sequence of assignments having a zero reserve.