Practical Exercises in Elementary Meteorology

CHAPTER V

In this chapter a series of six consecutive weather maps is taken as the basis of the work. The study of the weather elements on such a series of maps gives a far clearer understanding of the distribution of these elements and of their relation one with another, than if a far larger number of single maps are studied which do not follow one another in regular sequence. Teachers should add to the map-drawing exercises by giving their classes the data from other sets of maps selected from the school files. Summer maps as well as winter ones should be used, in order that too much emphasis may not be laid on winter conditions. The search for the various cities in which Weather Bureau stations are established, involved in the work of entering the data on the blank maps, furnishes excellent practice in geography. This exercise may be varied, and practice in the location of the different States may be given, if the teacher reads out to the class the temperatures in different parts of the various States, as, e.g., central Arizona, 34°; southwestern Tennessee, 30°; northern Nevada, 38°, etc. As the State names are not given on the Weather Bureau maps, such a method as this will give a very desirable familiarity with the relative positions of the States of the Union. If the school possesses a blackboard outline map of the United States, it may be a good plan, if the class is small, to have one of the pupils enter the temperatures and draw the isotherms on the board before the class, and to let the others correct him if they see that he is going wrong. As to irregularities in the isotherms, which may cause trouble, the officials of the Weather Bureau vary somewhat among themselves in dealing with such cases, and no definite rules can be laid down to fit all occasions. It is best to select maps with few irregularities at first, and in time experience will show how the exceptional cases may be treated.

By the scheme of coloring isothermal maps, suggested in this chapter, a valuable series of permanent illustrations of noteworthy weather types for class use can readily be prepared at very slight cost. For the purposes of these colored illustrations it is best to use the large scale Washington blank weather maps, as suggested in the preceding chapter, and to have each map mounted on heavy cardboard after it has been colored. By means of this mounting the maps are prevented from tearing, and can be kept smooth and in good condition.

The scheme of coloring may be varied to suit the fancy of the scholars, for the preparation of these permanent illustrations may well be intrusted to those of the class who are especially interested in the work, and who are skillful in their use of the paint brush. The work is really very simple and needs only ordinary care. As soon as the drawing of isotherms and the coloring of isothermal charts have been sufficiently studied, the teacher should hang up the daily weather map each day (or a blank map with the isotherms for the day drawn on it), and should call attention to the temperature changes from day to day. In this way the facts of actual temperature changes experienced by the class will be associated with the larger temperature changes shown on the weather maps.

The sections on temperature gradients may be postponed, if the teacher deems it advisable, until other matters of a simpler nature are passed. The idea of rates of change is not an easy one for students to grasp, and it is far better to postpone the consideration of this subject than to involve the class in any confusion at this stage. It is a mistake, however, to omit these sections altogether, as a clear conception of the principle of rates is a valuable part of a student’s mental equipment. It is a good plan, in the exercises on lines of temperature decrease, to have maps prepared with faint isotherms and heavy lines of temperature decrease, in order to emphasize the idea of change of temperature, in contrast to the idea of constancy of temperature expressed by the isotherms.

CHAPTER VI

In the work on the wind charts it is essential to proceed very slowly, in order that the best results may be obtained by the pupils. Some of the aberrant wind courses, which complicate the discovery of the cyclonic and anticyclonic spirals, may well be omitted in the case of the younger classes, and considerable assistance in facilitating these discoveries may be given by suggestions as to adding intermediate dotted wind arrows, in sympathy with the observed wind directions. The anticyclonic systems are always much more difficult to discover than the cyclonic, and care should be taken to assist the class in this matter as much as seems necessary.

The questions in the text are merely suggestive, and are by no means as numerous as it would be well to make them in the class. The discovery of the spirals will probably be made by degrees. The concise formulation of the facts discovered will furnish excellent basis for exercises in writing.

It is interesting to note that the discussion as to whether the winds blow circularly around, or radially in towards, centers of low pressure, which usually comes up in every class in meteorology at some stage in the study, was carried on in a very animated way about the middle of the present century in this country. Two noted American meteorologists, Redfield and Espy, and their respective followers, took opposite sides in this controversy, Redfield maintaining at the start that the winds moved in circles, and Espy maintaining that they followed radial courses. The truth lay between the two.

CHAPTER VII

The study of atmospheric pressure is not easy, because the pupils cannot perceive the changes in pressure from day to day by their unaided senses. Especially difficult does this study become if the class has not already had some practice in making barometer readings. When this observational work has not preceded the consideration of the isobaric lines of the daily weather maps, the teacher should introduce the subject of pressure very carefully. The experiment with the Torricellian tube will show the class something of the reality of atmospheric pressure, and the variations in this pressure from day to day can readily be made apparent by means of a few barometer readings, if time cannot be spared for a regular and continued series of barometer observations. A word may be said as to the correction of barometric readings for local influences, in order to make these readings comparable, if this matter has not been previously met with, but care should be taken not to confuse the younger pupils too much with explanations at this stage of the work. It may be well to omit this point unless it is brought up by some pupil. The questions asked in the text are merely suggestive. They may be added to and varied at the discretion of the teacher.

Lines of pressure-decrease should be drawn on all isobaric charts studied in the class, as they are highly instructive. When the isobars are near together, these lines of pressure-decrease may be drawn heavier, to indicate a steeper gradient. The convergence of these lines towards regions of low pressure, and their divergence from regions of high pressure, seen on every map on which these gradients are drawn, emphasizes an important lesson. Before measuring rates of pressure-decrease by means of a scale, considerable practice should be given in the study, by means of the eye, of the rapidity or slowness of decrease of pressure, as shown by the heavier or lighter lines of pressure-decrease. When the broad facts of differing rates are comprehended, then the actual measurement of these rates is a comparatively easy matter. In any case, however, an appreciation of these rates of change is not always readily gained, even by older scholars in the high school. It is, therefore, of prime importance to proceed very slowly indeed at this point, and to have every step fully understood before another step is taken.

The instructions in the text for measuring rates of pressure-decrease are, that these rates shall be recorded as so many hundredths of an inch of change of pressure in one latitude-degree. This is done for the sake of simplicity. If this rate is expressed in hundredths of an inch of pressure in a quarter of a latitude-degree of distance, the numerical value is the same as if expressed in millimeters of pressure per latitude-degree of distance.

CHAPTER VIII

The fact of the prevalence of different kinds of weather over the country at the same time is of great importance. It should be strongly emphasized by the teacher in the course of the discussion of the maps of weather distribution. Additional exercises of the same sort may be given to advantage, by letting the class plot and study the weather signs taken from any current weather map. Instructive lessons may be taught by talking over, in the class, the different ways in which people all over the country are affected by the character of the weather that happens to prevail where they are.

CHAPTERS IX-XVIII

The correlation exercises will, as a whole, teach few entirely new facts to the brighter scholars who have faithfully completed the preceding work in observations and in the construction and study of the daily weather maps. These exercises do, however, lead to detailed examination and to the careful working out of the relations which may have been previously noticed in a general way only. They give the repeated illustration which is necessary in order to impress firmly on the mind the lesson that the weather map has to teach.

It is a good plan to let different scholars work out the problems for different months. The results reached in each case should be discussed in the class, and thus each member may have the double advantage of working out his own problem, and of profiting by the work done by his fellows. Throughout these exercises care should be taken to have weather maps of all months studied. The exercise on the correlation of the velocity of the wind with the pressure cannot be undertaken unless the work on temperature and pressure gradients (Chapters V and VII) has been completed.

CHAPTERS XX-XXV

It is not expected that any one scholar can accomplish all that is here outlined. Examples may be selected from the list, as opportunity offers, so that each scholar shall become familiar with several problems.

Few of the problems suggested call for continuous routine observation at fixed hours. They require, on the other hand, an intelligent examination of ordinary weather phenomena, with special reference to discovering their explanation. In most of the problems a small number of observations will suffice. Under the supervision of the teacher, different problems may be assigned to the several members of a class; or several scholars may work on different parts of the same problem, exchanging records in order to save time. All the scholars should have a general knowledge of the results which have been obtained from the observations made by the other members of their class. The teacher will use his discretion in arranging the order of the problems, and in selecting those that are best suited to the season in which the work is done, to the locality in which the school is situated, and to the facilities and apparatus at command. Although the variety of accessible problems is less in city schools than in country schools, much may be done in the city as well as in the country.

The opportunities for carrying out such observational work vary so much in different schools that it is impossible to give specific instructions, which shall be available in all cases. Some general suggestions are therefore given, which the teacher may supplement by more detailed instructions framed to fit the particular circumstances of each case.

A review of the headings of the different problems shows that a very general correlation exists among them, whereby the subjects of every heading are associated with those of nearly every other. In other words, every weather element is treated as a function of several other elements. It follows from this that the variety of work here outlined is more apparent than real, and that many problems which appear from their wording to be entirely new are in large part rearrangements of problems previously encountered.

APPENDIX B

THE EQUIPMENT OF A METEOROLOGICAL LABORATORY

A. Instruments

Exposed Thermometer (United States Weather Bureau pattern), with brass support, $2.75.

Maximum and Minimum Thermometers (United States Weather Bureau pattern), mounted together on one board, $6.25.

Wet- and Dry-Bulb Thermometers (United States Weather Bureau pattern), mounted on one board, complete with water cup, $6.50.

Sling Psychrometer (designed by Professor C. F. Marvin, of the United States Weather Bureau), consisting of two exposed mercurial thermometers, mounted on an aluminum back, and provided with polished, turned hard-wood handle and brass trimmings, $5.00.

Sling Psychrometer, consisting of two cylindrical bulb thermometers, mounted one a little above the other upon a light brass frame, with a perforated guard to protect the bulbs while swinging, but which can be raised (by sliding upon the frame) for the purpose of moistening the linen covering of the wet bulb. Much less liable to be broken than the Weather Bureau pattern, $5.00.

Rain Gauge (United States Weather Bureau standard), 8 inches in diameter, complete, with measuring stick, $5.25.

Rain Gauge, 3 inches in diameter, with overflow and measuring stick, $1.25.

Wind Vane (United States Weather Bureau pattern), $10.00.

Anemometer (United States Weather Bureau pattern), with indicator, aluminum cups, and electrical attachment, $25.00.

The same, with painted brass cups, $23.00.

Anemometer Register (United States Weather Bureau pattern), with pen and ink attachment, $35.00.

The same, with pencil attachment (old style), $24.00.

Aneroid Barometer (for meteorological work), $14.00-$16.00.

Note.—Much cheaper aneroids can be purchased, and may be used to some advantage in the simpler observations in schools.

Mercurial Barometer (Standard United States Weather Bureau pattern), complete with attached thermometer, vernier, etc., $30.00-$33.00.

Note.—The above instruments, as used by the United States Weather Bureau, are made by H. J. Green, 1191 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y. The prices are those given in Green’s latest catalogue.

Mercurial Barometer. New improved form, especially designed for school use. Mounted on mahogany back. Scale engraved on aluminum. Divisions of scale on metric and English systems. No vernier, $5.75.

(L. E. Knott Apparatus Co., 14 Ashburton Place, Boston, Mass.)

Thermograph (designed by Dr. Daniel Draper, of New York). Consists of a bimetallic thermometer in a case which carries a disk, with a chart upon its axle instead of hands like the ordinary clock. A pen (resting on the face of the disk) registers the fluctuations of temperature as the chart is carried around. Sizes, 14 × 20 inches, $30.00; 10 × 14 inches, $15.00. This instrument may be purchased of H. J. Green.

Thermograph. Self-recording thermometer (as adopted by the United States Weather Bureau), made by Richard Frères, of Paris. Records continuously on a sheet of paper wound around a revolving drum, which is driven by clock-work inside. Standard size (without duty), $30.00.

Barograph. Self-recording barometer (as adopted by the United States Weather Bureau), made by Richard Frères, of Paris. Similar in general arrangement to the thermograph. Standard size (without duty), $27.60.

These last two instruments can be procured through Glaenzer Frères & Rheinboldt, 26 & 28 Washington Place, New York City.

Instrument Shelter (standard United States Weather Bureau pattern) will hold a set of maximum and minimum thermometers, psychrometer, and a thermograph. May be set up on top of posts driven into the ground, or may be attached to a wall, $18.00.

Barometer Box, for the standard mercurial barometer. Made of mahogany, with glass panels on front and sides; lock and key, and with fittings complete, $8.50.

These may be purchased of H. J. Green.

B. Text-Books

The Story of the Earth’s Atmosphere. Douglas Archibald. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1898. 18mo, pp. 194. 40 cents.

To be recommended to the general reader who wishes to gain some knowledge of meteorology quickly. Not a text-book. Contains a chapter on “Flight in the Atmosphere.”

Elementary Meteorology. William Morris Davis. Boston, Ginn & Co., 1898. 8vo, pp. 355. $2.50.

The most complete of the modern text-books, and the best adapted for use in the systematic teaching of meteorology. The modern views are presented clearly and without the use of mathematics. Portions of it are somewhat too advanced for school study, but teachers will find it invaluable as a reference book in directing the laboratory work, and in answering the questions of school classes.

A Popular Treatise on the Winds. William Ferrel. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1890. 8vo, pp. 505. $3.40.

This can hardly be regarded as a popular treatise. It embodies, in condensed and chiefly non-mathematical form, the results of Ferrel’s researches during his long and profound study of the general circulation and phenomena of the atmosphere. Teachers who advance far into meteorology will find this book indispensable. It is not at all suited for general class-room use.

American Weather. A. W. Greely. New York, Dodd, Mead & Co., 1888. 8vo, pp. 286. Out of print, but secondhand copies are probably obtainable.

Deals, as the title implies, especially with the weather phenomena of the United States. Contains brief accounts of individual hot and cold waves, hurricanes, blizzards and tornadoes, and gives specific data concerning maxima and minima of temperature, precipitation, etc., in the United States.

Meteorology: Practical and Applied. John William Moore. London, F. J. Rebman, 1894. 8vo, pp. 445. 8 shillings.

A readable book. Considerable space is given to instrumental meteorology. Contains chapters on the climate of the British Isles and on the relations of weather and disease in the British Isles. Especially adapted for the use of English readers.

Elementary Meteorology. Robert H. Scott. International Scientific Series. London, Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1885; Boston, A. A. Waterman & Co., 1889. 8vo, pp. 410. 6 shillings.

The standard text-book in Great Britain. The author is secretary to the Meteorological Council of the Royal Society. Fairly complete, but now somewhat out of date in some portions. It is a useful book in a meteorological library, but does not treat the subject in a way very helpful to the teacher.

Meteorology. Thomas Russell. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1895. 8vo, pp. 277.

Brief and incomplete as a text-book of meteorology, but containing a very comprehensive account, fully illustrated, of rivers and floods in the United States, and their prediction.

Elementary Meteorology. Frank Waldo. New York, American Book Company, 1896. 8vo, pp. 373. 90 cents.

A compact summary. Useful to teachers as a handy reference book.

Modern Meteorology. Frank Waldo. New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1893. 8vo, pp. 460. $1.25.

Very complete account of meteorological apparatus and methods, and admirable summary of recent German studies of the thermodynamics and general motions of the atmosphere.

C. Instructions in the Use of Instruments

Instructions for Voluntary Observers. 1899. 8vo, pp. 23. Brief instructions for taking and recording observations of temperature and precipitation with ordinary and maximum and minimum thermometers and with the rain gauge.

Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure. C. F. Marvin. 1894. 8vo, pp. 74. A pamphlet of information respecting the theory and construction of barometers in general, with summary of instructions for the care and use of the standard Weather Bureau instruments.

Instructions for Obtaining and Tabulating Records from Recording Instruments. 1898. 8vo, pp. 31. Contains directions concerning the care and use of the Richard thermograph and barograph.

Note.—These pamphlets are prepared under the direction of Professor Willis L. Moore, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, and are published, under authority of the Secretary of Agriculture, by the Weather Bureau. They will be found the best guides in making observations, the care of instruments, etc.

D. Journals, etc

Monthly Weather Review. Prepared under the direction of Willis L. Moore, Chief of Weather Bureau, Professor Cleveland Abbe, Editor. United States Department of Agriculture, Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. 10 cents a copy.

An invaluable publication for teachers and students alike. Contains complete meteorological summaries for each month; accounts of all notable storms, cold and hot waves, etc.; and a large number of articles on a wide range of meteorological subjects. The charts show the tracks of areas of high and low pressure which crossed the United States during the month, the total precipitation, sea-level pressure, temperature and surface winds, percentage of sunshine, etc., for the month. Other charts are also frequently added.

The Journal of School Geography. Professor Richard E. Dodge, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, Editor. Publication Office, 41 No. Queen Street, Lancaster, Pa. Ten numbers a year. $1.00 per annum.

A monthly journal devoted to the interests of the common school teacher of geography. Contains numerous articles and notes on meteorological and climatological subjects.

Science. Edited by Professor J. McK. Cattell, Columbia University, New York City, New York, The Macmillan Company. Weekly. $5.00 per annum.

Devoted to the advancement of all sciences. Contains brief Current Notes on Meteorology, which summarize the more important meteorological publications.

Monthly Bulletins of the Climate and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau.

These Bulletins are issued every month at the central office of the Weather Bureau in each State, under the direction of the Section Director of the Climate and Crop Service in that State. They contain meteorological data for the month, and frequently notes of interest. The annual summaries are especially valuable.

E. Charts

Daily Weather Maps. These are published at the central office of the Weather Bureau in Washington, and at eighty-four other stations of the Bureau throughout the United States. It is best to have the daily maps sent from the nearest map-publishing station, and not from Washington, as the delay in the latter case is often so great that much of the immediate value of the maps is lost.

Climate and Crop Bulletin of the United States Weather Bureau. Washington, D. C. Monthly.

Chart showing, by means of small maps, the actual precipitation, departures from normal precipitation, departures from normal temperature, and maximum and minimum temperatures. Also a printed summary of the weather and of the crop conditions in the different sections of the United States. Issued on the first of each month.

Snow and Ice Chart of the United States Weather Bureau. Washington, D. C. Weekly during the winter season.

Based on data from regular Weather Bureau stations, supplemented by reports from selected voluntary observers. Shows, by shading, the area covered with snow at 8 P.M. each Tuesday during the winter, and by lines, the depth of snow in inches. Explanatory tables and text accompany the chart.

Storm Bulletin of the United States Weather Bureau. Washington, D. C. Issued at irregular intervals.

Charts, with text, illustrating the history of individual notable storms.

Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. Hydrographic Office, Bureau of Equipment, Department of the Navy, Washington, D. C. Monthly. Price 10 cents a copy.