The Energy System of Matter: A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena

Another important feature of this energy transmission machine is the velocity, or rather the kinetic energy, of the band. The magnitude of the transmission process is directly proportional to this velocity, and is, therefore, also a function of the kinetic energy. At any given rate of transmission, this kinetic energy, like the energy stored against the cohesive influence, will be constant in amount, and like that energy also, will have been obtained at the expense of the originally applied energy. This kinetic energy is an important feature in the constitution of the transmission machine. As in the case of the strain energy, its maximum value is strictly limited, and thus imposes a limit on the general operation of the machine. For, at very high velocities, owing to the action of centrifugal force, it is not possible to keep the band in close contact with the surface of the pulleys. When the speed rises above a certain limit, although the energy actually being transmitted may not have attained the maximum value possible at lower speeds with greater tension in the band, the latter will, in virtue of the strain imposed by centrifugal action, be forced radially outwards from the pulley. The coefficient of friction will be thereby reduced; slipping will ensue, and the transmission may cease either in whole or in part. In this way the velocity or kinetic energy limit is imposed. The machine for energy transmission may thus be limited in its operation by two different factors. The precise way in which the limit will be applied in any given case will, of course, depend on the circumstances of working.

29. Some Phenomena of Transmission Processes—Transmission of Energy to Air Masses

The movement of the pendulum (§ 23) is accompanied by a certain transmission of energy to the surrounding medium. When this medium is a gaseous one such as air, the amount of energy thus transmitted is relatively small. The process, however, has a real existence. To illustrate its general nature, let it be assumed that the motion of the pendulum is carried out, not in air, but in a highly viscous fluid, say a heavy oil. Obviously, a pendulum falling from its highest position to its lowest, in such a medium would transmit its energy almost in its entirety to the medium, and would reach its lowest position almost devoid of energy of motion. The energy of position with which it was originally endowed would thus be transformed and transmitted to the surrounding medium. The agent by which the transmission is carried out is the moving material of the pendulum, which, as it passes through the fluid, distorts that fluid in the lines or field of its internal cohesive or viscous forces which offer a continuous resistance to the motion. As the pendulum passes down through the liquid, the succeeding layers of the latter are thus alternately distorted and released. The distortive movement takes place in virtue of the communication of energy from the moving pendulum to the liquid, and during the movement energy is stored in the fluid as energy of strain and as kinetic energy. At the same time, a transformation of the applied energy into heat takes place in the distorted material. The release of this material from strain, and its movement back towards its original state, is also accompanied by a similar transformation, in which the stored strain energy is, in turn, converted into the heat form. The whole operation is similar in nature to that frictional process already described (§ 16) in the case of a body moving on a rough horizontal table. The final action of the heat energy thus communicated to the fluid is to expand the latter against the internal cohesive or viscous forces of its material, and also against the gravitative attraction of the earth.

Now when the pendulum moves in air, the action taking place is of the same nature, and the final result is the same as in oil. It differs merely in degree. Compared with the oil, the air masses offer only a slight resistance to the motion, and thus only an exceedingly small part of the pendulum's energy is transmitted to them. The pendulum, however, does set the surrounding air masses in motion, and by a process similar in nature to that in the oil, a modicum of the energy of the falling pendulum is converted into heat, and thence by the expansion of the air into energy of position. In the downward motion from rest, the first stage of the process is a transformation peculiar to the pendulum itself, namely, energy of position into energy of motion. The transmission to the fluid is a necessary secondary result. It is important to note that this transmission is carried out in virtue of the actual movement of the material of the pendulum, and that the energy transmitted is in reality mechanical or work energy (§ 31). This mechanical or work energy, then actually leaves or is transmitted from the pendulum system, and is finally absorbed by the surrounding air masses in the form of energy of position.

Considered as a whole, there is evidently no aspect of reversibility about the operation, but it will be shown later (§ 32) that with the introduction of other factors, it really forms part of a comprehensive cyclical process. It is itself a process of direct transmission. It is carried out by means of a definite material machine which embodies certain energy transformations, and which is strictly limited in the extent of its operations by certain physical factors. These factors are the cohesive properties of the moving pendulum mass and the fluid with which it is in contact (§ 16). It is clear, also, that in an apparatus in which the motion is carried out in oil, any heat energy communicated to the oil would inevitably find its way to the surrounding air masses by conduction and radiation. The final result of the pendulum's motion would therefore be the same in this case as in air; the heat energy would, when communicated to the surrounding air masses, cause an expansive movement against gravity.

30. Energy Machines and Energy Transmission

Fig. 5

The various examples of energy transformation and transmission which have been discussed above (§§ 13-27) will suffice to show the essential differences which exist in the general nature of these operations. But they will also serve another purpose in portraying one striking and important aspect in which these processes are alike. From the descriptions given above, it will be amply evident that each of these processes, whether transformation or transmission, requires as an essential condition of its existence, the presence of a certain arrangement of matter; each process is of necessity associated with and embodied in a definite physical and material machine. This material machine is simply the contrivance provided by Nature to carry out the energy operation. It differs in construction and in character for different processes, but in every case there must be in its constitution some material substance, perceptible to the senses, with which the acting energy is intimately associated. This fact is but another aspect of the principle that energy is never found dissociated from matter (§ 11). In every energy machine, the material substance or operator forms the real foundation or basis of the energy operation, but besides this there are also always other phenomena of a secondary nature, totally different, it may be, from the main energy operation, which combine with that operation to constitute the whole. These subsidiary energy phenomena are the incepting factors, and are most important characteristics. Their presence is just as essential in energy transmission as it is in energy transformation. As demonstrated above, they are usually associated with the physical peculiarities of the basis or acting material of the energy machine, and their peculiar function is to conserve or limit the extent of its action. A complete description of these phenomena, in any given case, would not only be equivalent to a complete description of the machine, but would also serve as a complete description of the main energy operation embodied in that machine. Sometimes, however, the description of the machine is a matter of extreme difficulty, and may be, in fact, impossible owing to the lack of a full knowledge of the intimate phenomena concerned. An illustrative example of this is provided by the familiar phenomenon of heat radiation. Take the case of two isolated solid bodies A and B (Fig. 5) in close proximity on the earth's surface. If the body A at a high temperature be sufficiently near to B at a lower temperature, a transmission of energy takes place from A to B. This transmission is usually attributed to "radiation," but, after all, the use of the term "radiation" is merely a descriptive device which hides our ignorance of the operation. It is known that a transmission takes place, but the intimate phenomena are not known, and, accordingly, it is impossible to describe the machine or mechanism by which it is carried out. From general considerations, however, it appears that the material basis of this machine is to be found in the air medium which surrounds the two bodies. Experiment shows, indeed, that if this intervening material medium of air be even partially withdrawn or removed, the transmission is immensely reduced in amount. In fact, this latter phenomenon is largely taken advantage of in the so-called vacuum flasks or other devices to maintain bodies at a temperature either above or below that of the external surrounding bodies. The device adopted is, simply, as far as practicable to withdraw all material connection between the body which it is desired to isolate thermally and its surroundings. But it is clearly impossible to isolate completely any terrestrial body in this way. There must be some material connection remaining. As already pointed out (§ 5), we have no experimental experience of really separate bodies or of an absolute vacuum. It is to be noted that any vacuous space which we can experimentally arrange does not even approximately reproduce the conditions of true separation prevailing in interplanetary space. Any arrangement of separate bodies which might thus be contrived is necessarily entirely surrounded or enclosed by terrestrial material which, in virtue of its stressed condition, constitutes an energy machine of the same nature as those already described (§ 21). Even although the air could be absolutely exhausted from a vessel, it is still quite impossible to enclose any body permanently within that vessel without some material connection between the body and the enclosing walls. If for example, as shown in Fig. 6, CC represents a spherical vessel, completely exhausted, and having two bodies, A and B at different temperatures, in its interior, it is obvious that if these bodies are to maintain continuously their relative positions of separation, each must be united by some material connection to the containing vessel. But when such a connection is made, say as shown at D and E (Fig. 7), it is clear that A and B are no longer separate bodies in the fullest sense of the word, but are now in direct communication with one another through the supports at D and E and the enclosing sides of the vessel CC. The practicable conditions are thus far from those of separate bodies in a complete vacuum. It would seem, indeed, to be beyond human experimental contrivance to reproduce such conditions in their entirety. So far as these conditions can be achieved, however, and judging solely by the experimental results already attained with respect to the effect of exhaustion on radiation, it may be quite justly averred that, if the conditions portrayed in Fig. 6 could be realised, no transmission of energy would take place between two bodies, such as A and B, completely isolated from one another in a vacuous space. It appears, in fact, to be a quite reasonable and logical deduction from the experimental evidence that the energy operation of transmission of heat from one body to another by radiation is dependent on the existence between these bodies of a real and material substance which forms in some way (at present unknown) the transmitting medium or machine. The difficulty which arises in the description of this machine is due, as already explained above, simply to lack of knowledge of the intimate phenomena of its working. Many other energy processes will, no doubt, occur to the reader in which the same difficulty presents itself, due to the same cause.

Fig. 6

In dealing with terrestrial operations generally, and particularly when transmission processes are under consideration, it is important to recognise clearly the precise nature of these operations and the peculiar conditions under which they work. It must ever be borne in mind that the terrestrial atmosphere is a real and material portion of the earth's mass, extending from the surface for a limited distance into space (§ 34), and whatever its condition of gaseous tenuity, completely occupying that space in the manner peculiar to a gaseous substance. When the whole mass of the planet, including the atmosphere, is taken into consideration, it is readily seen that all energy operations embodied in or associated with material on what is usually termed the surface of the earth take place at the bottom of this atmospheric ocean, or, in reality, in the interior of the earth. The operations themselves are the manifestations of purely terrestrial energy, which, by its working in various devices or arrangements of material is being transformed and transmitted from one form of matter to another. As will be fully demonstrated later (Part III.), the nature of the terrestrial energy system makes it impossible for this energy ever to escape beyond the confines of the planetary atmospheric envelope. These are briefly the general conditions under which the study of terrestrial or secondary energy operations is of necessity conducted, and it is specially important to notice these conditions when it is sought to apply the results of experimental work to the discussion of celestial phenomena. It must ever be borne in mind that even the direct observation of the latter must always be carried out through the encircling planetary atmospheric material.

Fig. 7

In this portion of the work it is proposed to investigate in the light of known phenomena the possibility of energy transmission between separate masses. As explained above, the term separate is here meant to convey the idea of perfect isolation, and the only masses in Nature which truly satisfy this condition are the celestial and planetary bodies, separated as they are from one another by interplanetary space and in virtue of their energised condition (§ 5). Since this state of separation cannot be experimentally realised under terrestrial conditions, it is obvious, therefore, that no purely terrestrial energy process can be advanced either as direct verification or direct disproof of a transmission of energy between such truly separate masses as the celestial bodies. But as we are unable to experiment directly on these bodies themselves or across interplanetary space, we are forced of necessity to rely, for experimental facts and conclusions, on the terrestrial energy phenomena to which access is possible. As already indicated in the General Statement (§ 11), the same energy is bestowed on all parts of the cosmical system, and by the close observation of the phenomena of its action in familiar operations the truest guidance may be obtained as to its general nature and working. In such investigations, however, only the actual phenomena of the operation are of scientific or informative value. There is no gain to real knowledge in assuming, say in the examination of the phenomena of magnetic attraction between two bodies, that the one is urged towards the other by stresses in an intervening ethereal medium, when absolutely no phenomenal evidence of the existence of such a medium is available. It may be urged that the conception of an ethereal medium is adapted to the explanation of phenomena, and appears in many instances to fulfil this function. But as already pointed out (see Introduction), it is absolutely impossible to explain phenomena. So-called explanations must ever resolve themselves simply into revelations of further phenomena. While the value of true working hypotheses cannot be denied, it is surely evident that such hypotheses, unless they embody and are under the limitation of controlling facts, are not only useless, but, from the misleading ideas they are apt to convey, may even be dangerous factors in the search for truth. Now, if all speculative ideas or hypotheses are banished from the mind, and reliance is placed solely on the evidential phenomena of Nature, the study of terrestrial energy operations leads inevitably to certain conclusions on the question of energy transmission. In the first place, it must lead to the denial of what has been virtually the great primary assumption of modern science, namely, that a mass of material at a high temperature isolated in interplanetary space would radiate heat in all directions through that space. Such a conception is unsupported by our experimental or real knowledge of radiation. The fact that heat radiation takes place from a hot to a cold body in whatever direction the latter is placed relatively to the former, does not justify the assumption that such radiation takes place in all directions in the absence of a cold body. And since there is absolutely no manifestation of any real material medium occupying interplanetary space, no sign of the material agency or machine which the results of direct experiment have led us to conclude is a necessity for the transmission process of heat radiation, the whole conception must be regarded as at least doubtful. Even with our limited knowledge of radiation, the doctrine of heat radiation through space stands controverted by ordinary experimental experience. With this doctrine must fall also the allied conception of the transmission of heat energy by radiation from the sun to the earth. It is to be noted, however, that only the actual transmission of heat energy from the sun to the earth is inadmissible; the heating effect of the sun on the earth, which leads to the manifestation of terrestrial energy in the heat form, is a continuous operation readily explained in the light of the general principle of energy transformation already enunciated (§ 4). With respect to other possible processes of energy transmission between the sun and the earth or across interplanetary space, the same general methods of experimental investigation must be adopted. The transmission of energy under terrestrial conditions is carried out in many different forms and by the working of a large variety of machines. In every case, no matter in what form the energy is transmitted, that energy must be associated with a definite arrangement of terrestrial material constituting the transmission machine. Each energy process of transmission has its own peculiar conditions of operation which must be completely satisfied. By the study of these conditions and the allied phenomena it is possible to gain a real knowledge of the precise circumstances in which the process can be carried out. Now let us apply the knowledge of transmission processes thus gained to the general celestial case, to the question of energy transmission between truly separate bodies, and particularly to the case of the sun and the earth. Do we find in this case any evidence of the presence of a machine for energy transmission? It is impossible, within the limits of this work, to deal with all the forms in which energy may be transmitted, but let the reader review any instance of the transmission of energy under terrestrial conditions, or any energy-transmission machine with which he is familiar, noting particularly the essential phenomena and material arrangements, and let him ask himself if there is any evidence of the existence of a machine of this kind in operation between the sun and the earth or across interplanetary space. We venture to assert that the answer must be in the negative. The real knowledge of terrestrial processes of energy transmission at command, on which all our deductions must be based, does not warrant in the slightest degree the assumption of transmission between the sun and the earth. The most plausible of such assumptions is undoubtedly that which attributes transmission to heat radiation, but this has already been shown to be at variance with well-known facts. The question of light transmission will offer no difficulty if it be borne in mind that light is not in itself a form of energy, but merely a manifestation of energy as an incepting influence, which like other incepting influences of a similar nature, can readily operate across either vacuous or interplanetary space (§ 19).

On these general considerations, deduced from the observation of terrestrial phenomena, allied with the conception of energy machines and separate masses in space, the author bases one aspect of the denial of energy transmission between celestial masses. The doctrine of transmission cannot be sustained in the face of legitimate scientific deduction from natural phenomena. In the later parts of this work, and from a more positive point of view, the denial is completely justified.

31. Identification of Forms of Energy

Before leaving the question of energy transmission, there are still one or two interesting features to be considered. Although energy, as already pointed out, is ever found associated with matter, this association does not, in itself, always furnish phenomena sufficient to distinguish the precise phase in which the energy may be manifested. Some means must, as a rule, be adopted to isolate and identify the various forms.

Now one of the most interesting and important features of the process of energy transmission is that it usually provides the direct means for the identification of the acting energy. Energy, as it were, in movement, in the process of transmission, is capable of being detected in its different phases and recognised in each. The phenomena of transmission usually serve, either directly or indirectly, to portray the precise nature of the energy taking part in the operation. One of the most direct instances of this is provided by the transmission of heat energy. For illustrative purposes, let it be assumed that a body A, possessed of heat energy to an exceedingly high degree, is isolated within a spherical glass vessel CC, somewhat as already shown (Fig. 6). If it be assumed that the space within CC is a perfect vacuum, and that no material connection exists between the walls of the vessel and the body A, the latter is completely isolated, and no means whatever are available for the detection of its heat qualities (§ 30). It may seem that, if the temperature of the body A were sufficiently high, its energy state might be detected, and in a manner estimated, by its effect on the eye or by its luminous properties, but we take this opportunity of pointing out that luminosity is not invariably associated with high temperature. On the contrary, many bodies are found in Nature, both animate and inanimate, which are luminous and affect the eye at comparatively low temperatures. How then is the energy condition of the body to be definitely ascertained? The only means whereby it is possible to identify the energy of the body is by transmitting a portion of that energy to some other body and observing the resultant phenomena. Suppose, then, another body, such as B (Fig. 6), at a lower temperature than A, is brought into contact with A, so that a transmission of heat energy ensues between the two. The phenomena which would result in such circumstances will be exactly as already described in the case of the transmission of energy through a solid (§ 27). Amongst other manifestations it would be noticeable that the material of B was expanded against its inherent cohesive forces. Now if, instead of a spherical body such as B, a mercurial thermometer were utilised, the phenomena would be of precisely the same nature. A definite portion of the heat energy would be transmitted to the thermometer, and would produce expansion of the contained fluid. By the amount of this expansion it becomes possible to estimate the energy condition and properties of the body A, relative to its surroundings or to certain generally accepted standard conditions. Thermometric measurement is, in fact, merely the employment of a process of energy transmission for the purpose of identifying and estimating the heat-energy properties of material substances.