The Energy System of Matter: A Deduction from Terrestrial Energy Phenomena

Fig. 12

The paths of the moving auxiliary masses have been considered, so far, only as parallel to the surface of the sphere, but the general energy conditions are in no way altered if they are assumed to have in addition some motion normal to that surface; if, for example, they are repelled from the surface as they approach the equatorial regions, and return towards it once more as they approach the poles. Such a movement of the masses normal to the spherical surface really corresponds to the movement against the radial springs in the pendulum system; it would now be made against the attractive or restraining influence of gravitation, and a definite expenditure of energy would thus necessarily be required to produce the displacement. Energy, formerly stored in the springs, corresponds now to energy stored as energy of position (§ 20) against gravitation. If this energy is obtained at the expense of the inherent rotatory energy of the sphere, then its conversion in this fashion into energy of position will again be productive of a definite retardative effect on the revolution of the system. It is clear, however, that if each mass descends to the surface level once more in moving towards the poles, then in this operation its energy of position, originally obtained at the expense of the rotatory energy of the sphere, will be gradually but completely returned to that source. In a balanced system, such as we have assumed above, the descent of one mass in rotation would be accompanied by the elevation of another at a different point; the abstraction and return of the energy of rotation would then be equivalent, and would not affect the primary condition of uniformity of rotation of the system. In the circumstances assumed, the whole energy process which takes place in the movement of the masses from poles to equator and normal to the spherical surface would obviously be of a cyclical nature and completely reversible. It would be the working of mechanical energy in a definite material machine, and in accordance with the principles already outlined (§ 20) the maximum amount of energy which can operate in this machine is strictly limited by the mass of the material involved in the movement. The energy machine has thus a definite capacity, and as the maximum energy operating in the reversible cycle is assumed to be within this limit, the machine would be completely stable in nature (§ 25). The movements of the auxiliary masses have hitherto also been considered as taking place over somewhat restricted paths, but this convention is one which can readily be dispensed with. The general direction of motion of the masses must of course be from equator to pole or vice versa; but it is quite obvious that the exact paths pursued by the masses in this general motion is of no moment in the consideration of energy return, nor yet the precise region in which they may happen to be restored once more to the surface level. Whatever may be its position at any instant, each mass is possessed of a definite amount of energy corresponding to that position; this amount will always be equal to the total energy abstracted by that mass, less the energy returned. The nature of the energy system is, however, such that the various energy phases of the different masses will be completely co-ordinated. Since the essential feature of the system is its property of uniformity of rotation, any return of energy in the rotational form at any part of the system—due to the descent of material—produces a definite accelerating effect on the system, which effect is, however, at once neutralised or absorbed by a corresponding retardative effect due to that energy which must be extracted from the system in equivalent amount and devoted to the upraising of material at a different point. For simplicity in illustration only four masses have been considered in motion over the surface of the sphere, but it will be clear that the number which may so operate is really limited only by the dimensions of the system. The spherical surface might be completely covered with moving material, not necessarily of spherical form, not necessarily even material in the solid form (§ 13), which would rise and fall relative to the surface and flow to and from the poles exactly in the fashion already illustrated by the moving masses. The capacity of the reversible energy machine—which depends on the mass—would be altered in this case, but not the general nature of the machine itself. If the system were energised to the requisite degree, every energy operation could be carried out as before.

As already pointed out, the dominating feature of a spherical system such as we have just described would be essentially its property of energy conservation manifested by its uniformity of rotation. All its operations could be carried out independently of the direct action of any external energy influences. For if it be assumed that the energy gained by the auxiliary moving surface material in virtue of its displacement normal to the spherical surface be derived, not from the inherent rotational energy of the sphere itself, but by an influx of energy from some source completely external to the system, then since there has been no energy abstraction there will be no retardative effect on the revolution due to the upraising of this material. But the influx of energy thus stored in the material must of necessity work through the energy machine. In the movement towards the poles this energy would therefore be applied to the system in the form of energy of rotation, and would produce a definite accelerative effect. If the influx of energy were continuous, and no means were existent for a corresponding efflux, the rotatory velocity of the system would steadily increase. The phenomena would be of precisely the same nature as those already alluded to in the case of the system of rotating pendulums (§ 42). Acceleration would take place without corresponding retardation. A direct contribution would be continuously made to the rotatory energy of the system, and would under the given conditions be manifested by an increase in its velocity of revolution.

44. Extension of Pendulum Principles to Terrestrial Phenomena

The energy phenomena illustrated by the experimental devices above are to be observed, in their aspects of greatest perfection, in the natural world. In the earth, united to its encircling atmosphere by the invisible bond of gravitation, we find the prototype of the hypothetical system just described. Its uniformity of rotation is an established fact of centuries, and over its spheroidal surface we have, corresponding to the motion of our illustrative spherical masses, the movement of enormous quantities of atmospheric air in the general directions from equatorial to polar regions and vice versa. This circulatory movement, and the internal energy reactions which it involves, have been already fully dealt with (§ 38); we have now to consider it in a somewhat more comprehensive fashion, in the light of the pendulum systems described above. As already explained (§ 13), the operation of mechanical energy is not confined to solid and liquid masses only, but may likewise be manifested by the movements of gaseous masses. The terrestrial atmospheric machine provides an outstanding example. In its working conditions, and in the general nature of the energy operations involved, the terrestrial atmospheric machine is very clearly represented by the rotating pendulum system (§ 42). The analogy is still closer in the case of the hypothetical system just described. The actual terrestrial energy machine differs from both only in that the energy processes, which they illustrate by the movements of solid material, are carried out in the course of its working by the motion of gaseous masses. It is obvious, however, that this in no way affects the inherent nature of the energy processes themselves. They are carried out quite as completely and efficiently—in fact, more completely and more efficiently—by the motions of gaseous as by the motions of solid material.

The atmospheric circulation, then, may be readily regarded as the movement, over the terrestrial surface, of gaseous masses which absorb and return energy in regions of high and low velocity exactly in the fashion explained above for solid material. In their movement from polar towards equatorial regions these masses, by the action of the aqueous vapour (§ 38), absorb energy (axial energy) and expand upwards against gravity. Here we have an energy operation identical in nature with that embodied in the movements of a pendulum mass simultaneously over a spherical surface and against radial springs as in the system of rotating pendulums, or identical with the equatorial and radial movement of the auxiliary masses in the hypothetical system. The return movement of the aerial masses over the terrestrial surface in the opposite direction from equatorial to polar regions provides also exactly the same phenomena of energy return as the return movement of the masses in our illustrative systems. These systems, in fact, portray the general operation of mechanical energy precisely as it occurs in the terrestrial atmospheric machine. But obviously they cannot illustrate the natural conditions in their entirety. The passage or flow of the atmospheric air masses over the earth's surface is a movement of an exceedingly complex nature, impossible to illustrate by experimental apparatus. And indeed, such illustration is quite unnecessary. As already pointed out (§ 38), no matter what may be the precise path of an aerial mass in its movement towards the planetary surface the final energy return is the same. Sooner or later its energy of position is restored in the original axial form.

The terrestrial atmospheric machine will be thus readily recognised as essentially a material mechanical machine corresponding in general nature to the illustrative examples described above. The combination of its various energy processes is embodied in a complete cyclical and reversible operation. Its energy capacity, as in the simpler cases, is strictly limited by the total mass of the operating material. The active or working energy is well within the limit for reversibility (§ 23), and the machine is therefore essentially stable in nature. The continuous abstraction of axial energy by the aqueous vapour is balanced by an equally continuous return from the air masses, and the system, so far as its energy properties are concerned, is absolutely conservative. Energy transmission from or to any external source is neither admissible nor necessary for its working.

45. Concluding Review of Terrestrial Conditions—Effects of Influx of Energy

The aspect of the earth as a separate mass in space, and its energy relationship to its primary the sun and to the associated planetary masses of the solar system have been broadly presented in the General Statement (§§ 1-12). In that statement, based entirely on the universally accepted properties of matter and energy, an order of phenomena is described which is in strict accordance with observed natural conditions, and which portrays the earth and the other planetary bodies, so far as their material or energy properties are concerned, as absolutely isolated masses in space. The scientific verification of this position must of necessity be founded on the terrestrial observation of phenomena. So far as the orbital movements of the planet are concerned these are admittedly orderly; each planetary mass wheels its flight through space with unvarying regularity; the energy processes, also, associated with the variations of planetary orbital path, and which attain limiting conditions at perihelion and aphelion, are readily acknowledged to be reversible and cyclical in nature. In fact, even a slight observation of the movements of celestial masses inevitably leads to the conviction that the great energy processes of the solar system are inherently cyclical in nature, that every movement of its material and every manifestation of its energy is part of some complete operation. The whole appears to be but the natural or material embodiment of the great principle of energy conservation. It has been one of the objects of this work to show that the cyclical nature of the energy operations of the solar system is not confined only to the more prominent energy phenomena, but that it penetrates and is exhibited in the working of even the most insignificant planetary processes. Each one of the latter in reality forms part of an unbroken series or chain of energy phenomena. Each planet forms in itself a complete, perfect, and self-contained energy system. Every manifestation of planetary energy, great or small, whether associated with animate or inanimate matter, is but one phase or aspect of that energy as it pursues its cyclical path.

It is a somewhat remarkable fact that in this age of scientific reason the observation of the strictly orderly arrangement of phenomena in the solar system as a whole should not have led to some idea in the minds of philosophical workers of a similar order of phenomena in its separate parts, but the explanation lies generally in the continual attempts to bring natural phenomena into line with certain preconceived hypotheses, and more particularly to the almost universal acceptance of the doctrine of the direct transmission of energy from the sun to the earth and the final rejection or radiation of this energy into space. There is no denying the eminent plausibility of this doctrine. The evidence of Nature prima facie may even appear to completely substantiate it. But we would submit that the general circumstances in which this doctrine is now so readily accepted are very similar to those which prevailed in more ancient times, when the revolution of the sun and stars round the earth was the universal tenet of natural philosophy. This conception, allied to the belief that the sole function of the celestial bodies was to provide light and heat to the terrestrial mass, appeared to be in strict accordance with observed phenomena, and held undisturbed possession of the minds of men for centuries, until it was finally demolished by Copernicus as the result of simple and accurate observation of and deduction from natural phenomena. At the present time, the somewhat venerable belief in the transmission of energy in various forms from the sun to the earth appears at first sight to be supported by actual facts. But a more rigid scrutiny of the evidence and of the mental processes must inevitably lead the unbiassed mind to the conclusion that this belief has no real foundation on truly scientific observation, but is entirely unsupported by natural phenomena. Every operation of Nature, in fact, when considered in its true relationships is an absolute denial of the whole conception. Like its predecessor relating to the motion of the sun and stars round the earth, the doctrine of energy transmission between separate masses in space such as the sun and the earth cannot be sustained in the face of scientific observation. This doctrine is found on investigation to be supported not by phenomena but by the conception of an elastic ethereal medium, of whose existence there is absolutely no evidential proof, and the necessity for which disappears along with the hypothesis it supports. It is, however, not proposed to discuss in any detail either the supposed transmission of energy from the sun to the planets or the arbitrary properties of the transmitting medium, but rather to adopt a more positive method of criticism by summarising briefly the evidential phenomena which show the cyclical nature of the whole terrestrial energy process, and which remove the basis of belief in such a transmission.

To recapitulate the more general conditions, we find the earth, alike with other planetary masses, pursuing a defined orbital path, and rotating with uniform angular velocity in the lines or under the influence of the gravitation, thermal, luminous, and other incepting fields (§§ 17, 18, 19) which originate in the sun. Its axial rotation, in these circumstances, gives rise to all the secondary transformations (§ 9) of terrestrial axial energy, which in their operation provide the varied panorama of terrestrial phenomena. Terrestrial axial energy is thus diverted into terrestrial secondary processes. Each of these processes is found to be united to or embodied in a definite material machine (§§ 27-30), and is, accordingly, limited in nature and extent by the physical properties and incepting factors associated with the materials of which the machine is composed. By ordinary methods of transmission, energy may pass from one material to another, that is to say from one machine to another, and by this means definite chains of energy processes are constituted, through which, therefore, passes the axial energy originally transformed by the action of the sun. These series or chains of energy processes are also found to be one and all linked at some stage of their progress to the general atmospheric machine (§ 29). The energy operating in them is, in every case, after many or few vicissitudes according to the nature of the intermediate operations, communicated to the gaseous atmospheric material. By the movement of this material in the working of the atmospheric machine (§ 38) the energy is finally returned in its original form of axial energy of rotation. The sun's action is thus in a manner to force the inherent rotatory energy of the planet into the cyclical secondary operations, all of which converge alike towards the general atmospheric mechanism of return. The passage of the energy through the complete secondary operations, and its re-conversion into its original axial form, may be rapid or slow according to circumstances. In equatorial regions, where the influence of the sun's incepting fields is most intense, we find that the inherent planetary axial energy is communicated with great rapidity through the medium of the aqueous vapour to the air masses. By the movement of the latter it may be just as rapidly returned, and the whole operation completed in a comparatively short interval of time. In the same equatorial regions, the transformations of axial energy which are manifested in plant life attain their greatest perfection and vigour. But in this case the complete return of the operating energy may be very slow. The stored energy of tropical vegetation may still in great part remain in the bosom of the earth, awaiting an appropriate stimulus to be communicated to more active material for the concluding stages of that cyclical process which had its commencement in the absorption of axial energy into plant tissue. The duration of the complete secondary operation has, however, absolutely no bearing on the conservative energy properties of the planet. In this respect, the system is perfectly balanced. Every transformation or absorption of rotatory energy, great or small, for long or short periods of time, is counteracted by a corresponding return. Absolute uniformity of planetary axial rotation is thus steadily maintained.

It is scarcely necessary at this stage to point out that the verification of this description of natural operations lies simply and entirely in the observation of Nature's working at first hand. The description is based on no theory and obscured by no preconceived ideas, it is founded entirely on direct experimental evidence. The field of study and of verification is not restricted, but comprises the whole realm of natural phenomena. In a lifetime of observation the author has failed to discern a single contradictory phenomenon; every natural operation is in reality a direct confirmation.

The conception of energy, working only through the medium of definite material machines with their incepting and limiting agencies, is one which is of great value not only in natural philosophy but also in practical life. By its means it is possible in many cases to co-ordinate phenomena, apparently antagonistic, but in reality only different phases of energy machines. It aids materially also in the obtaining of a true grasp of the inexorable principle of energy conservation and its application to natural conditions, and it emphasises the indefensible nature of such ideas as the radiation of energy into space.

It will be evident that in a planetary system such as described above there is no room for any transmission of energy to the system from an external source. The nature of the system is, in fact, such that a transmission of this kind is entirely unnecessary. As already demonstrated, every phenomenon and every energy operation can be carried out independently of any such transmission. For the purpose of illustration, however, it may be assumed that such a communication of energy does take place; that according to the accepted doctrines of modern science the sun pours energy in a continuous stream into the terrestrial system. Now, no matter in what form this energy is communicated, it is clear that once it is associated with or attached to the various planetary materials it is, as it were, incorporated or embodied in the planetary energy machines, and must of necessity work through the secondary energy operations. But these operations have been shown to be naturally and irresistibly connected to the general atmospheric machine. Into this machine, then, the incremental energy must be carried, and it will be there directly converted into the form of axial energy of rotation. Once the incremental energy is actually in the planet, once it is actually communicated to planetary material, the nature of the system absolutely forbids its escape. The effect of a direct and continuous influx such as we have assumed would inevitably be an increase in the angular velocity of the system. This effect has already been verified from an experimental point of view by consideration of the phenomena of a rotating pendulum system (§§ 42, 43). Whilst the influx of energy proceeds, then in virtue of the increasing velocity of the planetary material in the lines of the various incepting fields of the sun, all terrestrial phenomena involving the transformation of rotary or axial energy would be increased in magnitude and intensified in degree. The planet would thus rapidly attain an unstable condition; its material would soon become energised beyond its normal capacity, and the natural stability (§ 25) of its constituent energy machines would be destroyed; the system as a whole would steadily proceed towards disruption.

But, happily, Nature presents no evidence of such a course of events. The earth spins on its axis with quiet and persistent regularity; the unvarying uniformity of its motion of axial rotation has been verified by the observations of generations of philosophers. Its temperature gradations show no evidence of change or decay in its essential heat qualities, and the recurrence of natural phenomena is maintained without visible sign of increase either in their intensity or multiplicity. The finger of Nature ever points to closed energy circuits, to the earth as a complete and conservative system in which energy, mutable to the highest degree with respect to its plurality of form, attains to the perfection of permanence in its essential character and amount.

1

The conception of "Nature's Perfect Engine" was originally arrived at by the author from consideration of the phenomena of the steam-engine. The following extract from the "Review" of his work (1895) illustrates the various stages which finally lead to that conclusion:—

"My first steps in the right direction came about thus. I had always been working with a cylinder and piston, and could make no progress, till at length it struck me to make my cylinder high enough to do without a piston—that is, to leave the steam to itself and observe its behaviour when left to work against gravity. The first thing I had to settle was the height of my cylinder. And I found, by calculation from Regnault's experiments that it would require to be very high, and that the exact height would depend on the temperature of the water in the boiler which was the bottom of this ideal cylinder. Now, at any ordinary temperature the height was so great that it was impossible to get known material to support its own weight, and I did not wish to use a hypothetical substance in the construction of this engine. Finally, the only course left me was to abolish the cylinder as I had done the piston. I then discovered that the engine I had been trying to evolve—the perfect engine—was not the ideal thing I had been groping after but an actual reality, in full working order, its operations taking place every day before my eyes.